Month: April 2021

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Celtic Lore: Cauldrons – The Magical, the Mythical and the Real

Magic Cauldron 1

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday on 11th February 2021, titled , “Ancient Celtic Cauldrons: The Magical, the Mythical, the Real,” by zteve t evans, who has revised, edited and provide new images and republished here 5th February 2024

Cauldrons

Cauldrons held symbolic significance in the folklore of the ancient Welsh and Irish Celts, appearing as enchanted objects in their most revered tales, while in everyday life, they served many practical purposes, including boiling water, preparing meals, making beverages, and fulfilling other needs. They were also used in sacred rites and public ceremonies, becoming featured in some of their most significant religious myths, where they were given magical, healing, and rebirth qualities and associated with individual gods and goddesses.

For example, in Irish mythology, there was the Cauldron of the Dagda, the god of plenty, while the mythos of Wales spoke of the Cauldron of Cerridwen, the goddess of change. In Celtic society, cauldrons were also possibly status symbols, being finally engraved and wrought to exhibit the wealth and status of a person and were often placed in their tombs when they died. First, we will briefly examine the everyday usage of cauldrons, then look at five mythical cauldrons. Finally, we will discuss one genuine, ancient, and unique cauldron found in a bog in Denmark.


Transformation and Inspiration

As a container for water, cauldrons symbolised the ocean and lakes. But it was not just the water or contents but the vessel itself that was important, which changed whatever item was placed into it, into something else. Ancient cauldrons have been found in springs, rivers, lakes, bogs, and other wet and watery places believed to have been purposely left as votive offerings to deities of such places. Cauldrons were also symbolic of the womb, where human life was created and reborn. When water is boiled in a cauldron over a fire, its magical properties become visible as it bubbles, and whatever is added to it is transformed. To the Celts, a person’s poetic and artistic inspiration was determined by their way of life, and the amount they received depended on the intensity of the bubbles in the cauldron.


The Cauldron of Ceridwen

In the mythos of the Welsh Celts, the goddess and sorceress Ceridwen owned a famous cauldron of inspiration, knowledge, and rebirth. It was featured in the tale of the birth of Taliesin, where she used it to brew a potion that would imbue inspiration and wisdom to whoever drank it. She had intended it solely for her son, Afagddu, to compensate him in life for the unfortunate ugliness he had been born with. The mixture had to be boiled and stirred for one year and one day. She assigned feeding the fire to a blind man named Morda, while a boy named Gwion Bach was responsible for mixing the potion as it heated.


Many people see the continuous stirring of the cauldron as the motion that creates the perfect blend of divine wisdom, inspiration, and the perpetual cycle of life, death, and rebirth. By chance, three drops of the potion spilt on Gwion’s hand. To soothe the pain, he put his hand to his mouth and immediately gained great wisdom and the gift of Awen. Blessed with this gift, he knew Ceridwen would be angry and fled. During the chase, the two underwent multiple shapeshifting transformations, eventually resulting in Gwion’s rebirth as Taliesin.


The Dagda’s Cauldron of Plenty

In Irish mythology, a famous cauldron belonged to the Dagda, a giant deity with a long black beard. This cauldron is called the Cauldron of Plenty and is one of the Four Treasures of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Dagda was a god associated with fertility, agriculture, strength, and masculinity. Although often presented humorously as a huge man, he was a god of enormous status and importance, controlling the weather, crops, time, seasons, and life and death. Everyone of good character could eat their fill from this cauldron, which never ran out of good, cooked food. The spoon was said to be so large two men could easily fit into it.


The Pair Dadeni

In Welsh mythology, the Pair Dadeni was also known as the Cauldron of Rebirth and features in the second branch of the Mabinogi story called Branwen ferch Llŷ, as having the power to return the dead to life but bereft of the power of speech. Originally, it belonged to Llaes Gyfnewid and his wife Cymydei Cymeinfoll, two giants who had lived under an Irish lake known as the Lake of the Cauldron. Cymydei Cymeinfoll was the larger of the two and was said to give birth to a fully armed adult warrior every six weeks. The Irish king, King Matholwch, gave them a place at his court, but the two giants fell out with their host, who attempted to burn them to death. They fled to Wales and were received well by King Bendigeidfran, another giant, and in return for his hospitality, they gave their cauldron to him.


When King Matholwch sailed to Wales asking for the hand of King Bendigeidfran’s sister, Branwen, in marriage, Bendigeidfran and his Branwen agreed on the wedding. However, when their half-brother, Efnisien, found out, he objected and, out of spite, mutilated the Irish king’s horses. To make amends with Matholwch, Bendigeidfran gave him the cauldron as a peace offering. Matholwch returned to Ireland with Branwen, who later gave birth to a son named Gwern. Unfortunately, along with Branwen and the cauldron, he also brought back to Ireland a grudge against the Welsh and systematically mistreated Branwen, making her life unbearably miserable. The unhappy Branwen raised and tamed a starling and taught it to carry a message across the Irish Sea to her brother in Wales, telling him of her plight. Upon receiving a message from his sister, Bendigeidfran and his army set sail to rescue her, but was too gigantic to fit in a boat. Therefore, striding before them across the Irish Sea, he led the fleet to Ireland to free his sister. Upon their arrival, fearing such a powerful army, the Irish made peace with the Welsh. They built a massive house, big enough to hold Bendigeidfran and his army, and held a feast in his honour.


Once again, Efnysien caused trouble by killing Gwern, Branwen’s son, which triggered a violent battle between the Welsh and the Irish. Efnysien, realising the Irish were using the cauldron to revive their slain warriors, placed himself in a pile of their dead and was thrown into the magical vessel. After entering, he successfully destroys the cauldron from the inside, resulting in his death. Although the Welsh emerged victorious, King Bendigeidfran was fatally wounded. He commands his followers to cut off his head and carry it back to Wales, advising him he would still be able to talk to them on the way despite the decapitation. The Irish army was destroyed, but only seven Welsh warriors survived the conflict, along with Branwen, who died of a broken heart soon after her return to Wales.


The Cauldron of Dyrnwch, the Giant


The Pair Dyrnwch Gawr, or the cauldron of Dyrnwch, the Giant, is one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain (1) and is valued for having the ability to distinguish between a brave man and a coward. Water boiled quickly, and meat cooked fast for a brave man. In contrast, water would not boil, and meat would not cook for a coward. The Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain (1), also known as Tri Thlws ar Ddeg Ynys Prydain in Welsh, are a collection of legendary objects that hold significant value in late-medieval Welsh folklore. Various texts have mentioned these items dating back to the 15th and 16th centuries. The Cauldron of Dyrnwch could have been associated with a similar vessel, the Cauldron of Diwrnach, mentioned in the Middle Welsh tale Culhwch ac Olwen.


The Cauldron of Diwrnach

Magic Cauldron 2

In the tale of Culhwch ac Olwen, a cauldron belonging to Diwrnach Wyddel, the Irishman, steward to Odgar, the son of Aedd, King of Ireland, is one of the anoetheu, which means wonders or marvels, that Ysbaddaden, the giant and father of bride-to-be Olwen, demands the groom-to-be Culhwch, complete by accomplishing a set of impossible tasks.


“Though thou get this, there is yet that which thou wilt not get. The cauldron of Diwrnach Wyddel, the steward of Odgar the son of Aedd, king of Ireland, to boil the meat for thy marriage feast.” (2)


Culhwch seeks assistance from his cousin, King Arthur, to ask King Odgar for the cauldron, but Diwrnach refuses to give it up.


Accompanied by a small group, Arthur visits Diwrnach in Ireland and is welcomed into his home. Despite being rebuffed once again by Diwrnach, Arthur’s companion, Bedwyr takes matters into his own hands and seizes the cauldron, entrusting it to one of Arthur’s servants, who carries it on their back. With one swift swing of his legendary sword, known as Caledfwlch, Llenlleawg defeats Diwrnach. A battle breaks out between the Irish forces and Arthur and his followers, but they fight their way back to their ship, Prydwen, taking with them the cauldron loaded with the spoils of war, return to Britain. In this tale, the cauldron is not believed to possess any supernatural abilities.


Preiddeu Annwfn – The Spoils of Annwfn


However, in an earlier Welsh poem called Preiddeu Annwfn, or The Spoils of Annwfn, Arthur and his companions embark on a quest to acquire a cauldron with mystical properties like the one listed in The of Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain. The poem differs in that the desired cauldron is the property of the king of Annwn instead of an Irish monarch, maybe implying that Culhwch and Olwen’s story is a later endeavour to euhemerise an earlier mythical saga.


It’s possible that Diwrnach, a name deriving from the Irish, Diugurach, and with no known literary origins, was intentionally chosen by the author of Culhwch ac Olwen to highlight the Irish setting of the tale. While Dyrnwch is not explicitly referred to as being Irish, many scholars deem it likely this name has roots in Diwrnach. The existing manuscripts of Tri Thlws ar Ddeg also feature alternate spellings like Dyrnog and Tyrnog, which lack Irish influence, and it is speculated these are Welsh attempts at pronouncing a foreign name.


The Gundestrup Cauldron

Image from Gundestrup Cauldron – Public Domain

The Gundestrup cauldron, dated to about 1 BC, is the most impressive historic Celtic cauldron ever found, though its origins are disputed. It is made from silver and features intricate and beautiful designs. The silversmiths who crafted the piece are unknown, but such exquisite silverwork was rare in those days. There is speculation that a Celtic smith might not have created the object, but rather by the best craftsman available, who may have been outside the Celtic domain, for a customer of eminence within. The Celtic iconography etched upon it suggests it was commissioned by an unknown, high-ranking Celt, probably for purely ceremonial purposes. The imagery is believed to express one or more Celtic myths and possibly display several deities mixed with other images of a different style.


The Importance of Cauldrons to the Celts

Many scholars believe ancient Celts gathered around a cauldron to enjoy eating together, perhaps as a family or at a social event. The Gundestrup cauldron, made of silver, was likely used for holding pre-cooked food or drink, or as a purely ceremonial object, rather than for cooking over a fire. After the meal, the bards might entertain by telling stories of their ancestors and gods. The stories were typically transmitted from one generation to another through oral tradition to reach the ordinary people. The images on the Gundestrup cauldron could have been used as a prompt for a storyteller, indicating a simple form of literature for the educated few. Alternatively, the images could have been purely for decoration.


The original purpose and history of this artefact remains a mystery, but its existence highlights the significance of cauldrons to the Celtic people as portrayed in their mythologies. Some scholars interpret the cauldron’s images in terms of Celtic gods and mythology from the British Isles, but other experts are highly skeptical of these interpretations. Nevertheless, there are apparent similarities between the details of the figures and Iron Age Celtic artifacts found by archaeologists.


Various iconographic details can be traced back to ancient Near East art. Additionally, there are interesting similarities between Hindu deities and stories from earlier Indian civilisations and later epochs. However, some scholars only view the images as purely decorative with no deeper meaning. Meanwhile, other scholars have tried to associate the style, motifs and art with broader traditions remaining from Proto-Indo-European religion despite the distance.


Many motifs are not European and present an unfamiliar world, distinct from those of the people who left it in the wetland bog in north Jutland. The iconography of the cauldron features various creatures such as lions, elephants, mythical beasts, and several unknown gods. The style of the figures suggests that the cauldron was crafted in a foreign land, most likely in the far southern or southeastern region. However, the exact origin of the cauldron remains uncertain and subject to further investigation.

While there are those who doubt its Celtic origin, many others see the ancient stories and myths etched upon its silver plates and in this way regard this ancient item as carrying the magical stories of the ancient Celts to the modern world.

© zteve t evans


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The Giant and the Geoglyphs of the The Atacama Desert, Chile

Atacama Desert – Image by Julian Hacker from Pixabay

The Atacama Desert

The Atacama Desert (Desierto de Atacama) of Chile, South America, located between the Andes Mountains and the coastal Cordillera de la Costa mountain range is the oldest desert on the planet. However, with an average temperature of 18 C or 63 F it is not the hottest desert in the world but being sandwiched between two mountain ranges creates special atmospheric and weather conditions making it the driest non-polar desert in the world.  The desert landscape is dry and arid with an otherworldly appearance and has been used for simulations of future expeditions to Mars.  The driest part of the desert receives less that a millimeter of rain annually on average though rainstorms do occur on rare occasions which bring rapid but fleeting growths of wildflowers.

Geoglyphic Art

Although the Atacama is a desolate, inhospitable place today there is much evidence of ancient human presence.   There are more that 5,000 prehistoric works of art known as geoglyths that have been situated on or created from the landscape.  A geoglyph is a work of art or construction that is formed on the ground in parts of the landscape.  They are usually 4 meters or more in length and constructed of durable materials found in the locality such as stone, rocks, gravel or earth.  They are considered a type of ancient land art and in some cases rock art and are usually highly visible from a distance.  In some cases such as some of the famous Nasca lines of Peru they appear to have been constructed to be viewed from above though it is not certain that was intended.  The Nazca lines were built between 200-800 BC and about 800 kilometers distant.   However, the Atacama glyphs are believed to have been built between 600 and 1500 AD and although not thought to be as old are more numerous and with varied styles covering a much larger region.

It is believed both sets of geoglyphs had multiple symbolic and ritual purposes and communicated certain information to people who understood their symbolism.   The Atacama geoglyphs are thought to have played an important role in the transportation system and networks that connected the great civilizations of South America in pre-Hispanic times.  They were believed to have been built and improved upon by more than one early South American culture including The Tiwanaku and Inca Empires as well as other groups.  The geoglyphs are formed in many different shapes including human, animal and geometric in about fifty varying types.  Some of these works were placed or created in isolated sites while others appear in panels of figures up to fifty in number.   They are located throughout the Atacama Desert in valleys, or on pampas or hillsides and always close to pre-Hispanic paths or tracks which were the routes of the llama caravans through the arid and desolate landscape connecting the ancient people of the region.

Types and Forms of Geoglyphs

Image by Sznegra – CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

There were three methods that have been identified that were used to create the geoglyphs.  One method was to scrape away the top layer of the landscape such as soil or sand revealing a contrasting color below.   Another way was to use rocks and stone and other materials to form shapes on the landscape.   They also used a combination of these two methods and sometimes paint to create other geoglyphs.

Geoglyphs in geometric shapes are the most numerous. There are many different types of these including rectangles, circles, concentric circles, arrows, crossed parallel lines, rhomboids and other shapes.  There are also zoomorphic figures especially llamas and alpacas, but also animals such as fox and monkeys, birds such as eagles, flamingos, and seagulls and fishes such as dolphins or sharks.   There are also depictions of amphibians such as lizards, snake and toads which were believed to represent ancient divinities associated with water.  One of the most often repeated depictions are of caravans of llamas with 3 or more ranks of up to 80 animals in lines.   Humans are also depicted engaged in activities such as fishing, hunting, religious ceremonies and sex.

Ancient Signposts

Luis Briones in his paper, “The geoglyphs of the north Chilean desert: an archaeological and artistic perspective”, published in the March 2006 issue of the journal Antiquity discussed the geoglyphs and came up with some interesting ideas. The real function and purpose of the geoglyphs may never be known but Briones believes they may have served several functions.   Their location along the trade routes through the Atacama seems to have been deliberate.  It may be they acted as signposts providing the travelers, who would know their meaning, with certain types of invaluable and useful information.

They may have served as pointers or landmarks perhaps indicating where water or fodder for animals may be found, or warning of difficulties in the landscape and indicating safe paths.   It may be that they are part of an early religion or cult which may have combined commercial traveling with religion.  Following such a path may have been a rite or ritual or perhaps an initiation or pilgrimage.   If they did contain information they may have been an early form of writing.  However, to read their meaning you would have to know what the shapes and the way they were set meant along with how punctuation and syntax was used.  Unfortunately, that knowledge is now lost, if it ever existed and we can only guess.

The trade routes would have been an important part of the economy for any civilization or culture.   The moving or essential items such as corn, potatoes, fish and other food as well as commodities such as turquoise, copper and cotton to distant markets helps bind civilizations and empires together.   Moreover, they transported news and perhaps orders or commands from the government centers.

The Atacama Giant

Varech, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

One of the most spectacular of these geoglyphs is known as the Atacama Giant, a large anthropomorphic figure set on the side of the hill of Cerro Unitas.  It is the largest known prehistoric anthropomorphic figure in the world being 390 ft (119 m) long and believed to depict a deity of a local population from 1000 – 1400 AD.   It was believed to be an early astronomical calendar that told those who knew how to read it important dates such as crop cycles and seasons in relation to how certain parts of it aligned with the moon.   Anything that might help predict rain or weather would be very useful in the dry, barren regions of the Atacama Desert.  

Hill figures are often thought to have been intended to view from some distance, suggesting the giant may have been strategically placed.  The giant has a stylized unnatural appearance made up of squares, rectangles and parallel lines at varying angles to create a geometric representation of a massive anthropomorphic figure.    It appears to be either wearing a headdress such as one made of feathers or had rays emanating with from its head or from behind it.    How the moon or other astronomical objects related to these lines was believe to give the season and times of the year. 

The Giant and the other geoglyphs provide evidence of the activities of humans in these inhospitable regions. There are many similar examples of such landscape art found all around the world including the Nasca lines, and the White Horse of Uffington and other English hill figures, the Blythe Intaglios of California USA and the Steppe Geoglyphs of Kazakhstan are but a few examples.

© 23/04/2021 zteve t evans

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Copyright April 4th, 2021 zteve t evans

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Five Trees Featured in Celtic Lore

Oak tree image by RegalShave from Pixabay

This article was first published on 21st January 2021 on #FolkloreThursday.com under the title Top 5 Trees in Celtic Mythology, Legend and Folklore by zteve t evans. This has been revised and edited 26 February 2024, and some of the images may have differ from the original.

Animism

The ancient Celtic people, as animists, believed that all objects, including trees, had consciousness to some degree. Furthermore, they considered each tree species to possess different properties, which might be medicinal, spiritual or symbolic. Wood was used for everyday needs, including fuel, shelter, tools, and weapons like spears, arrows, and many other items, and provided nuts and berries for food for themselves and their animals. Some species of tree are featured in stories from their myths, legends and folklore, and here we present five trees that played an essential role in these tales and lore.

Oak Trees

The oak was the king of the forest, having many associations throughout the Celtic world with religion, ritual, and myth, and had many practical uses. For the Druids – the Celtic priesthood – it was an integral part of their rituals and was also used as a meeting place. According to the 1st-century geographer Strabo, Druids in Galatia, Asia Minor, met in a sacred grove of oak trees they named Drunemeton to perform rituals and conduct other Druidic business. In 1 AD, Pliny the Elder, writing in Historia Naturalis, documented how a Druidic fertility rite on the sixth day of the moon involved a Druid cutting mistletoe from the branches of an oak and the ritual sacrifice of two white bulls.

Oaks also played essential parts in Welsh mythology. In the Math fab Mathonwy, the last of The Four Branches of the Mabinogi, the sorcerers Gwydion and Math create a maiden they named Blodeuwedd or flower-faced from the blossoms of the oak, the broom and meadowsweet. She was made to be the bride of their nephew, Lleu Llaw Gyffes, who could not marry a human woman due to a curse placed on him by Arianrhod, his mother. He married Blodeuwedd, who had never learned the social conventions, never having experienced the learning process of growing up. She had an affair with Gronw Pebyrv, and together, they plotted to kill Lleu. Gronw badly wounded him but, turning into an eagle, flew into an oak tree to escape being murdered. The oak appeared to be a refuge between the living world and the world of death, and he remained there until Gwydion found and cured him.

Ash Trees

Ash trees image by binael from Pixabay

The ash tree was the queen of the forest. Ash trees have significance in both Irish and Scottish mythology and folklore. It was believed to have been used in the rites of Beltane and formed part of the sacred trinity of trees with the oak and the thorn. Ashwood was thought to protect against fairies, and their seed pods were used for divination. The Gaels of Scotland used it for medicine and to protect against witchcraft. Its wood was considered especially good for making spears, staffs and wands and was believed to protect against evil. A Druid’s wand made from ash was found on the Welsh island of Anglesey and is thought to date from the early 1st century CE.
In Celtic Ireland, five magical trees protected the land, three of which were ash. The remaining two were an oak and a yew. The Bile Tortan, or the Tree of Tortu, grew in County Meath at Ard Breccan near Navan. This tree reputedly sheltered all the men of Tortu and was thought to have come down in AD 600. The Caeb Daithi, or the Branching Tree of Daithe, grew in County Westmeath at Farbill. The third sacred ash tree was the Craeb Uisnig, which grew on the hill of Uisneach and is considered the centre point of the island of Ireland.

Apple Trees

Apples image by Hans from Pixabay

The apple tree and its fruit had numerous functions in Celtic myth, legend and folklore. Unsurprisingly, apples symbolised fruitfulness and a means to obtain immortality. In Welsh and Arthurian tradition, the Island of Avalon was King Arthur’s final resting place and the home of Morgan le Fay and her sisters. It was also known as the Insula Pomorum or Isle of Apples. In Irish tradition, the magical island of Emain Ablach was also known as the Isle of Apples. A story from the Ulster Cycle, Aided Chon Roí, or the Violent Death of Cú Roí, tells how the soul of Cú Roí was held in an apple that lay in the stomach of a salmon that only ever appeared once every seven years.

Hazel Trees

Hazel nuts image by TBIT from Pixabay

Hazel trees were significant in Celtic traditions, providing wood and edible nuts. Tara, the religious centre and royal seat in ancient Ireland, was once known as Fordruim and described as a hazel wood. In the Ogham alphabet of ancient Ireland, the letter “C” was represented by the hazel tree. According to Robert Graves, it represented the ninth month of the Old Irish calendar. The Fianna, an elite group of Irish warriors and poets, were expected to defend themselves using only a hazel stick and a shield. In many stories, the hazel without its leaves was considered evil and believed to ooze poison.

In Wales and Ireland, the hazel was considered a fairy tree. Its wood was sacred to poets and deemed inappropriate to use as fuel for fires. Hazel wands were used as badges of office by messengers and couriers. Witches also made their wands from hazel, which were and still are used as divining rods to find underground water sources. In Irish mythology, the poet Finn Eces, also known as Finegas, caught the Salmon of Knowledge. Later, the mythical Irish hero Fionn mac Cumhaill ate the salmon. The salmon had gained all the knowledge of the world after it had eaten hazelnuts that had dropped into the pool from nine hazel trees that surrounded it. This knowledge was passed on to Fionn after he ate the salmon.

Yew Trees

Ancient yew tree image by imordaf from Pixabay

Yew trees are renowned for their longevity. Scientists use a scientific method called dendrochronology, which examines growth rings to date trees. Dating Yew trees is problematic because their annual growth rings decay in the centre, making it difficult to accurately determine their age by counting tree rings. New techniques have been worked out which may give greater accuracy, though these are sometimes contested. Even so, some people believe there are yews alive today that were growing in Celtic times and maybe earlier.

According to the Woodland Trust, the Fortingall Yew in Perthshire is believed to be between 2,000 and 3,000 years old. Possibly an older tree is the ancient yew in the churchyard of St Cynog’s church in Defynnog, which may be up to 5,000 years old. Another yew of similar age grows in the churchyard of St. Digain’s Church in Llangernyw village, known as the Llangernyw Yew. According to legend, every Halloween, a voice from the tree names every one of the local people who will die in the following year. One man named Siôn Ap Rhobert refused to believe this. One Halloween, he waited under the yew to hear whose names would be called out. His name was called, and he died within the year.

The Druids were believed to have regarded yews as sacred and would have been aware of their longevity and regenerative qualities. The drooping branches of old yews, when in prolonged contact with the ground, can take root and form trunks which support the main tree, whose core may be rotting. The needles of the yew were poisonous and could cause death, but its longevity and renewal caused it to become associated with resurrection, consequently becoming associated with death and renewal.

A Threefold Reminder

The trees mentioned here are just a few species the Celts knew and admired. Like many other human cultures, they developed the idea of a Tree of Life, Tree of Knowledge or the World or Cosmic Tree. This unique tree connected the other, or underworld, to the heavens, passing through the earthly world. It was a powerful symbol of the existence of the three worlds and the connections between them. This threefold reminder emphasised the respect and reverence the Celts had for their trees, and many people in the modern world are inclined to believe that we could learn a thing or two from the ancients.

© zteve t evans

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