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Celtic Lore: Exploring the Otherworld

Otherworld

This article was first published on #FolkoreThursday.com under the title, Exploring the Otherworld of the Celts, on 18 March, 20211, written by zteve t evans. This work has been revised and edited and different images added 3rd February 2024.

Entry to the Otherworld

The concept of an enchanted and mysterious “Otherworld” has been a typical feature in numerous myths and legends across a wide range of human cultures throughout history. The ancient Celtic people also had their version of this enigmatic and ethereal region. Their territories included Ireland, the British Isles, and a swathe of continental Europe to Anatolia, West Asia, now part of Turkey and included parts of the Iberian Peninsula. Across this vast area, there were variations in beliefs and ideas about the Otherworld. This work briefly explores their concept of the Otherworld and how it varied in different parts of the Celtic world.

Celtic Mythology

The Celtic Otherworld is frequently depicted as the realm where their deities reside, the abode of their deceased, or a harmonious combination of both. In alternate narratives, it is described as a magical paradise where inhabitants revel in perpetual youth, good health, and beauty, leading lives filled with joy and abundance, all their needs automatically met. This Otherworld is often associated with mystical entities such as fairies, Twylyth Teg, the aos sí, and other magical beings.

Entry to the Otherworld

Access to the Otherworld is typically concealed and challenging to discover, but specific individuals of merit manage to reach it through personal endeavours. Others might receive invitations, be guided by their residents, or follow given signs. Entrance may be facilitated through ancient burial mounds or by traversing over or under bodies of water, like rivers, pools, or seas. Certain locations, including specific lakes, bogs, caves, burial mounds, or hills, were believed to serve as portals to and from the Otherworld.

Another theory posits that the Otherworld exists in a parallel dimension, akin to a mirror world alongside the earthly realm. During specific periods, such as Samhain and Beltane, the barrier separating the two realms weakens, making the transition between them possible.

Annwyn: The Welsh Otherworld

Otherworld Hunt

In Welsh mythology, the Otherworld is commonly referred to as Annwn or Annwfn, with indications in Welsh tradition suggesting the existence of diverse realms or regions within its confines.

It is common in Celtic tales for a stag or deer to lead hunters into otherworldly encounters, entwining them in its affairs. An example of this is found in the First Branch of the Mabinogi, recounting the story of Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed.

While hunting in Glyn Cuch, Pwyll, having become separated from his companions, stumbles across a pack of strange white hounds with red ears mauling on a slain stag they had brought down. This event is the catalyst for an encounter with the Otherworld. The red-eared hounds belong to Arawn, the magical king of the Otherworld of Annwn, who arrives on a dappled grey horse and is outraged to find Pwyll has for driving off his dogs and claiming the stag as his own.

To assuage Arawn’s anger over the stag, Pwyll agrees to spend one year and one day in an exchange of bodies, with the mission of defeating Hafgan, another king of Annwn. This exchange means Pwyll will inhabit Arawn’s body and Arawn his for that time. The story suggests the possibility of multiple kingdoms within the Otherworld: Arawn’s kingdom of Annwn, another unnamed ruled by Hafgan, and a third where Rhiannon came from, which also is unnamed.

Arawn invites Pwyll to his hall and escorts him safely through Annwn to reach it to accomplish the task, ultimately uniting the two otherworldly realms under one monarch. During this exchange of bodies, Pwyll is presented with the opportunity to be intimate with Arawn’s beautiful wife, a queen and a representative of a goddess of sovereignty. Demonstrating his integrity as the ruler of Dyfed, Pwyll refrains from taking advantage of the situation, respecting both the queen and the sacred connection between rulership and the land.

Subsequently, a mysterious lady named Rhiannon arrives from the Otherworld, possibly from a different realm within. Her appearance is enigmatic, clad in white and gold, riding serenely upon a shining white horse. Despite being pursued by Pwyll’s fastest horses, some magical force prevents them from catching up. Only when Pwyll personally gives chase and requests her to stop does she finally halt, revealing her purpose—to ask Pwyll for marriage, an offer he accepts.

Irish Mythology – Oisin in Tír na nÓg

Niamh of the Golden Hair

Within Irish mythology, the Otherworld goes by various names, with Tír na nÓg, or the Land of Youth, being one of the most renowned. The tale of Oisín and Niamh of the Golden Hair vividly portrays life in Tír na nÓg, presenting multiple versions of this captivating narrative.

Similar to the arrival of Rhiannon in the Welsh tale, Niamh emerges as another otherworldly woman, riding a magical white horse and proposing marriage to an earthly man. Oisín, engrossed in hunting deer, accepts her proposal and is transported to Tír na nÓg, seated behind Niamh on the enchanted horse that gallops effortlessly across the sea. Upon arrival, he discovers a paradise where his thoughts materialize into reality.

Despite the luxurious and indulgent life, Oisín, a man of action, yearns for the thrill of the hunt. His wishes are granted, and he enjoys exhilarating hunts that always culminate in a perfect ending. The stag provides an exciting chase, followed by a noble death just before supper, with a magical hunting lodge and sumptuous banquet appearing effortlessly. Yet, the experience lacks the rawness and uncertainty of a genuine chase.

Bored with the predictable life, Oisín desires danger and combat. His wish is fulfilled, but the battles are orchestrated magically. He faces an ogre holding a princess captive, sustains wounds, but is healed by Niamh and never truly endangered. He triumphs over his foe, liberating the princess.

After living happily with Niamh in her land, he yearns to return to Ireland. Niamh reluctantly grants Oisín’s wish, lending him her magical white horse. However, she warns him not to touch the soil of Ireland. Upon his return, Oisín realizes that what seemed like a short stay in Tír na nÓg was, in reality, hundreds of years. His family and friends are long gone, and Christianity has replaced the older religious ways he knew. Unfortunately, Oisín falls from his horse while assisting a group of workmen. On touching the Irish soil, time catches up with him, and he instantly transforms into an dying aged man and, before he dies, shares his adventures in Tír na nÓg with Saint Patrick before passing away.

Continental Celtic Mythology

On the European continent, the Gauls divided the Otherworld into three parts: Albios, Bitu, and Dubnos. Albios represented the upper world or heaven, also known as the white world. Bitu was the world of living beings or the earthly realm, while Dubnos signified the underworld, lower world, dark world, or hell.

The Celts left scant written records of their beliefs, and much of the available information comes from non-Celtic sources that might have imposed their interpretations. Lucan, a Roman poet, asserted that Gaulish druids believed in an Otherworld he called Orbis aloha, where souls went before reincarnation.Procopius of Caesarea, a Byzantine scholar, believed the land of the dead for ancient Gauls lay west of Britain. According to him, the souls of the departed travelled to the northwestern coast of Gaul, took a boat to Britain, and then visited the homes of local fishermen. These fishermen ferried the souls of the dead across the sea to their final destination.

Breton and Galician folklore still retain remnants of these beliefs. In Breton tradition, the ships that transported the dead to the Otherworld were known as Bag an Noz. In his book “La légende de la mort chez les Bretons Armoricains,” Anatole Le Braz describes processions of souls traversing the land to reach the coast, where they began their voyage to the Otherworld.

In examining these few instances, it becomes apparent that the concept of the Celtic Otherworld exhibited diversity across regions, with variations even within individual areas. The depictions of the Otherworld range from magical and enchanting to dark and disturbing, mirroring the nuanced nature of the earthly world experienced by humans in contemporary times.

The concept of an enchanted and mysterious “Otherworld” has been a typical feature in numerous myths and legends across a wide range of human cultures throughout history. The ancient Celtic people also had their version of this enigmatic and ethereal region. Their territories included Ireland, the British Isles, and a swathe of continental Europe to Anatolia, West Asia, now part of Turkey and included parts of the Iberian Peninsula. Across this vast area, there were variations in beliefs and ideas about the Otherworld. This work briefly explores their concept of the Otherworld and how it varied in different parts of the Celtic world.

© zteve t evans

Reference, Attributions and Further Reading

Copyright zteve t evans

  • Celtic Otherworld – Wikipedia
  • Annwn – Wikipedia
  • The Mabinogion and the Four Branches of the Mabinogi – The Mabinogi of Pwyll
  • Welsh Mythology: Pwyll’s Sojourn in Annwfn – Under the influence!
  • Tír na nÓg – Wikipedia
  • Oisín – Wikipedia
  • Otherworld – Wikipedia
  • Religion of the Ancient Celts by J. A. MacCulloch
  • Image by conjured and modified by zteve t evans using Bing Image Creator from Designer using the commands, “A misty strange world with a stag, a wolf, a raven, a waterfall, a young man and woman in a forest, in the distance a road leading to a mountain in the style of Gustav Klimt.” – ” 23 January 2024
  • Image Otherworld Hunt conjured and modified by zteve t evans using Bing Image Creator from Designer using the commands, “an otherwordly forest featuring a stag being chased a pack of white hounds with red ears by a dark king riding a grey horse in the style of Edvard Munch, 22 January 2023.
  • Image Niamh of the Golden Hair” conjured by zteve t evans usinf Bing Image Creator from Designer using the commands A princess with long golden hair, dressed in white riding a white horse over the sea waves while sun is setting in the style of the pre-raphaelites – 22 January 2024
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Celtic Lore: Shapeshifters of Myth and Legend

Joseph Christian Leyendecker (1874 – 1951), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This article was first published 11 March 2021 on #FolkloreThursday.com titled, Shapeshifters from the Celtic World by zteve t evans. It has been revised and edited and give different images 3st Feb 2024.

Shapeshifters From The Celtic World

Shapeshifters are found in most mythologies and folk traditions worldwide from ancient to modern times. In such traditions, humans change into vampires, werewolves, frogs, insects, and any other creature imaginable and back again. Sometimes, the transformer controls the transformation and shifts shape at will. Other times, it is an unwelcome event such as a punishment, and sometimes, a magical spell forces it, but there are many varied reasons besides. Shapeshifters can be good or bad, often moving the story forward in a novel way or having some symbolism that the teller wants to convey to their audience. There are many kinds of shapeshifting. Here, we look at examples from Ireland, Wales and Scotland that provide differing glimpses of shapeshifters in action in these three Celtic nations’ myths, folklore, and traditions.


Irish Shapeshifters

In Irish mythology, the Morrigan was a shapeshifting war goddess who could transform into a woman of any age, animal, or bird form. She had the power of prophecy and, as a war goddess, would sing her people to victory in battle. Sometimes, she could be seen swooping over the battlefield as a raven or crow and devouring the bodies of the slain.


In the story of the Táin Bó Cúailnge, or “The Cattle Raid of Cooley,” the Morrigan appears as a crow to warn the bull named Donn Cuailnge that Queen Medb is plotting to abduct him. Queen Medb attacks Ulster to obtain the bull to be resisted single-handedly by the hero Cú Chulainn, fighting a series of duels with her champions at a Ford. In battle, Cú Chulainn undergoes a spectacular change in his form described as “ríastrad” or “warp-spasm” that sees his body twist and contort into the most grotesque and fearsome appearance, terrifying his opponents.


In between the duels, the Morrigan appears before Cú Chulainn as an attractive young woman seeking his love and offering her help. He rejects her, and feeling offended, she seeks revenge by aiding his opponents. First, she turns into an eel and trips him. Next, she turns into a wolf and causes a herd of cattle to stampede towards the Ford. Lastly, she transforms herself into a heifer and leads the stampede, but despite her magical shapeshifting, she fails, and Cú Chulainn manages to wound her on each transformation. Later, she transforms into an elderly woman milking a cow bearing the three wounds. She offers him milk to drink, and he blesses her, healing her wounds, which he later regrets.


Welsh Shapeshifters

There are many examples of shapeshifting in Welsh mythology where a human takes the form of an animal or bird, and even flowers are transformed into maidens. In the story of Math fab Mathonwy, the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, Math and Gwydion created the maiden Blodeuwedd out of broom, meadowsweet, and oak flowers and later transformed into an owl. Earlier, Gwydion had undergone a series of transformations, changing into a stag, sow, and wolf, even producing offspring as a punishment inflicted by Math.


An exciting and extraordinary example of shapeshifting appears in the story of the birth of Taliesin. The sorceress, Ceridwen, brewed a potion to give to her son Morvran ab Tegid that would endow him with great wisdom and knowledge. She gave a boy named Gwion Bach the task of stirring the brew and tasked a blind man with feeding the fire. As Gwion was stirring, three boiling drops spat from the cauldron onto his hand. Putting his hand to his mouth to relieve the pain, he accidentally ingested the drops, becoming endowed with awen instead of Morvran. With knowledge and wisdom provided by the awen, he foresaw Ceridwen’s wrath at the accidental ruining of her scheme.


Knowing he must escape, he transformed into a hare, but she became a greyhound hot on his tail. Therefore, he transformed into a fish and leapt into a river, but she became an otter and closed in on him. Just in time, he transformed into a bird and flew away. She changed into a hawk and again began to close in on him. Seeing a pile of winnowed wheat lying in a barn, he dived into that, transforming himself into a kernel of corn. Transforming herself into a black hen, Ceridwen pecked it all up, including him. With him inside her, she was now pregnant and, nine months later, gave birth to a beautiful baby boy. Realising the baby was Gwion Bach reborn, she wanted to kill him, but because of the fairness of his brow, she could not. Giving him a slim chance of survival, she placed him in a leather bag and cast him into water. He would later be rescued and became the greatest Welsh bard in history.


Scottish Shapeshifters

In Scottish folklore, selkies and kelpies are vastly different shapeshifting entities from the Irish and Welsh examples we have looked at. Moreover, they are entirely separate entities, having distinctive characteristics, making them intriguing subjects in legends and folktales. First, we will look at the selkie, and then discuss the kelpie.

Transforming Selkie

A selkie changes form from seal to human by removing its seal skin and must put its seal skin back on to revert to its seal form. The female selkie often becomes trapped in a relationship when a man steals her seal skin while she is in human form. With the theft of her seal skin, her power has been stolen, and she cannot transform back into her original form and must live on land as a woman. Sometimes, she will marry but spends considerable time pining for the sea. She may have children, but if she ever recovers her seal skin, she quickly forsakes them and her husband to return to the sea. According to tradition, male selkies are very handsome in human form, and women find them very seductive. The male selkie tends to seek out those women who are unhappy in their marriage, such as fishermen’s wives who wait patiently alone at home for their husband’s return.


Kelpies are a different kind of entity in Scottish folklore. They are dangerous, supernatural horse-like entities with shapeshifting abilities dwelling in rivers, pools, and lochs. According to tradition, lone travelers sometimes encountered them lingering near watery places. They often take the form of a beautiful woman or horse but can also adopt other guises, such as an old man’s. One sign of their real identity can be revealed when water weed is noticed entangled in their hair.


A folktale from the island of Barra tells how an amorous male kelpie transformed into a handsome young man hoping to seduce and marry a local girl. While the young man was sleeping, she noticed he wore a silver necklace, which was, in fact, his bridle. She removed it, and he transformed into a horse. The girl takes it to her father, who is a farmer, and he puts it to work for a year. At the end of that year, she takes it to a wise man, seeking his advice. He advises her she must return the silver necklace to him, which she does, and the horse transforms into the handsome young man. The wise man asks the young man if he would prefer to live as a kelpie or a mortal man. The young man asks the girl if she would marry him if he kept his human form. She confirmed that she would, and the kelpie chose to be a mortal man and married the girl.


Shapeshifters in Abundance

From gods and goddesses to witches and sorcerers to strange, dangerous supernatural entities that haunt the wilds, Celtic mythology and folklore have an abundance of shapeshifters. Examples of transforming humans into animals or vice versa can be seen in the rock art of ancient cultures around the world, predating the Celts. Similarly, in the modern age, shapeshifters are found in traditional and contemporary media, reflecting how this strange and intriguing phenomenon still piques curiosity and strikes the right chord with many people today.

©zteve t evans

References, Attributions and Further Reading

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Five Trees Featured in Celtic Lore

Oak tree image by RegalShave from Pixabay

This article was first published on 21st January 2021 on #FolkloreThursday.com under the title Top 5 Trees in Celtic Mythology, Legend and Folklore by zteve t evans. This has been revised and edited 26 February 2024, and some of the images may have differ from the original.

Animism

The ancient Celtic people, as animists, believed that all objects, including trees, had consciousness to some degree. Furthermore, they considered each tree species to possess different properties, which might be medicinal, spiritual or symbolic. Wood was used for everyday needs, including fuel, shelter, tools, and weapons like spears, arrows, and many other items, and provided nuts and berries for food for themselves and their animals. Some species of tree are featured in stories from their myths, legends and folklore, and here we present five trees that played an essential role in these tales and lore.

Oak Trees

The oak was the king of the forest, having many associations throughout the Celtic world with religion, ritual, and myth, and had many practical uses. For the Druids – the Celtic priesthood – it was an integral part of their rituals and was also used as a meeting place. According to the 1st-century geographer Strabo, Druids in Galatia, Asia Minor, met in a sacred grove of oak trees they named Drunemeton to perform rituals and conduct other Druidic business. In 1 AD, Pliny the Elder, writing in Historia Naturalis, documented how a Druidic fertility rite on the sixth day of the moon involved a Druid cutting mistletoe from the branches of an oak and the ritual sacrifice of two white bulls.

Oaks also played essential parts in Welsh mythology. In the Math fab Mathonwy, the last of The Four Branches of the Mabinogi, the sorcerers Gwydion and Math create a maiden they named Blodeuwedd or flower-faced from the blossoms of the oak, the broom and meadowsweet. She was made to be the bride of their nephew, Lleu Llaw Gyffes, who could not marry a human woman due to a curse placed on him by Arianrhod, his mother. He married Blodeuwedd, who had never learned the social conventions, never having experienced the learning process of growing up. She had an affair with Gronw Pebyrv, and together, they plotted to kill Lleu. Gronw badly wounded him but, turning into an eagle, flew into an oak tree to escape being murdered. The oak appeared to be a refuge between the living world and the world of death, and he remained there until Gwydion found and cured him.

Ash Trees

Ash trees image by binael from Pixabay

The ash tree was the queen of the forest. Ash trees have significance in both Irish and Scottish mythology and folklore. It was believed to have been used in the rites of Beltane and formed part of the sacred trinity of trees with the oak and the thorn. Ashwood was thought to protect against fairies, and their seed pods were used for divination. The Gaels of Scotland used it for medicine and to protect against witchcraft. Its wood was considered especially good for making spears, staffs and wands and was believed to protect against evil. A Druid’s wand made from ash was found on the Welsh island of Anglesey and is thought to date from the early 1st century CE.
In Celtic Ireland, five magical trees protected the land, three of which were ash. The remaining two were an oak and a yew. The Bile Tortan, or the Tree of Tortu, grew in County Meath at Ard Breccan near Navan. This tree reputedly sheltered all the men of Tortu and was thought to have come down in AD 600. The Caeb Daithi, or the Branching Tree of Daithe, grew in County Westmeath at Farbill. The third sacred ash tree was the Craeb Uisnig, which grew on the hill of Uisneach and is considered the centre point of the island of Ireland.

Apple Trees

Apples image by Hans from Pixabay

The apple tree and its fruit had numerous functions in Celtic myth, legend and folklore. Unsurprisingly, apples symbolised fruitfulness and a means to obtain immortality. In Welsh and Arthurian tradition, the Island of Avalon was King Arthur’s final resting place and the home of Morgan le Fay and her sisters. It was also known as the Insula Pomorum or Isle of Apples. In Irish tradition, the magical island of Emain Ablach was also known as the Isle of Apples. A story from the Ulster Cycle, Aided Chon Roí, or the Violent Death of Cú Roí, tells how the soul of Cú Roí was held in an apple that lay in the stomach of a salmon that only ever appeared once every seven years.

Hazel Trees

Hazel nuts image by TBIT from Pixabay

Hazel trees were significant in Celtic traditions, providing wood and edible nuts. Tara, the religious centre and royal seat in ancient Ireland, was once known as Fordruim and described as a hazel wood. In the Ogham alphabet of ancient Ireland, the letter “C” was represented by the hazel tree. According to Robert Graves, it represented the ninth month of the Old Irish calendar. The Fianna, an elite group of Irish warriors and poets, were expected to defend themselves using only a hazel stick and a shield. In many stories, the hazel without its leaves was considered evil and believed to ooze poison.

In Wales and Ireland, the hazel was considered a fairy tree. Its wood was sacred to poets and deemed inappropriate to use as fuel for fires. Hazel wands were used as badges of office by messengers and couriers. Witches also made their wands from hazel, which were and still are used as divining rods to find underground water sources. In Irish mythology, the poet Finn Eces, also known as Finegas, caught the Salmon of Knowledge. Later, the mythical Irish hero Fionn mac Cumhaill ate the salmon. The salmon had gained all the knowledge of the world after it had eaten hazelnuts that had dropped into the pool from nine hazel trees that surrounded it. This knowledge was passed on to Fionn after he ate the salmon.

Yew Trees

Ancient yew tree image by imordaf from Pixabay

Yew trees are renowned for their longevity. Scientists use a scientific method called dendrochronology, which examines growth rings to date trees. Dating Yew trees is problematic because their annual growth rings decay in the centre, making it difficult to accurately determine their age by counting tree rings. New techniques have been worked out which may give greater accuracy, though these are sometimes contested. Even so, some people believe there are yews alive today that were growing in Celtic times and maybe earlier.

According to the Woodland Trust, the Fortingall Yew in Perthshire is believed to be between 2,000 and 3,000 years old. Possibly an older tree is the ancient yew in the churchyard of St Cynog’s church in Defynnog, which may be up to 5,000 years old. Another yew of similar age grows in the churchyard of St. Digain’s Church in Llangernyw village, known as the Llangernyw Yew. According to legend, every Halloween, a voice from the tree names every one of the local people who will die in the following year. One man named Siôn Ap Rhobert refused to believe this. One Halloween, he waited under the yew to hear whose names would be called out. His name was called, and he died within the year.

The Druids were believed to have regarded yews as sacred and would have been aware of their longevity and regenerative qualities. The drooping branches of old yews, when in prolonged contact with the ground, can take root and form trunks which support the main tree, whose core may be rotting. The needles of the yew were poisonous and could cause death, but its longevity and renewal caused it to become associated with resurrection, consequently becoming associated with death and renewal.

A Threefold Reminder

The trees mentioned here are just a few species the Celts knew and admired. Like many other human cultures, they developed the idea of a Tree of Life, Tree of Knowledge or the World or Cosmic Tree. This unique tree connected the other, or underworld, to the heavens, passing through the earthly world. It was a powerful symbol of the existence of the three worlds and the connections between them. This threefold reminder emphasised the respect and reverence the Celts had for their trees, and many people in the modern world are inclined to believe that we could learn a thing or two from the ancients.

© zteve t evans

References, Attributions and Further Reading

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Animism and the Living World of the Ancient Celts

Image by jplenio from Pixabay

This article was first published January 14, 2021 on FolkloreThursday.com as Animism and the Living World of the Ancient Celts written by zteve t evans and has been revised, edited, and republished 8th February 2024. Text and images may differ from original.

Animism

Rather than a religion, animism is more an expression of the energy connections that are believed to flow through all things, connecting each to the other and the greater consciousness. It is this greater consciousness that is the source of all energy, and that endows everything with life and sentience. Many early creeds embraced aspects of animism, and it is still found in many modern religions and philosophies.

Celtic Identity

The Celts were a varied collection of ethnic groups inhabiting a broad swathe of continental Europe from the west coast of Ireland to the Black Sea and other scattered areas. Rather than ethnicity, they were connected by aspects of language, culture and religion. They worshipped various gods and goddesses, which varied from region to region, as could the importance and attributes of those divinities. Animism is one of the significant threads connecting this vast and diverse group of people in their culture and philosophy.

Spirit and Consciousness

In animism, there is a belief that all things possess a spirit and a consciousness that connects everything. The sky, Earth and underworld, natural phenomena such as the weather, and everything were all part of a greater conscious universe. Furthermore, even certain words, objects and images had sentience and were alive and could be used in conjunction with the greater consciousness to benefit humanity. For the Celt, death was the transmigration of the souls while their ancestors were revered and regarded as alive.

The Environment

In ancient Celtic times, the land was still wild and forested, and human activity had less impact on the environment than today. The environment and landscape were very different, and the Celtic people were much closer to nature than most Europeans are today and more dependent on the local natural resources. To live and thrive, they needed to exploit the abundant natural resources around them. Hence, there was a need to develop an intimate relationship with nature. They believed the surface of the Earth, under the Earth and in the sky were inhabited by various spirit entities and divinities. For the Celts, it was possible to live in harmony with these entities and harness their power for the benefit of humankind.

Sacred Places

Image by DarkmoonArt_de from Pixabay

For the Celts, springs, forests, and mountains had spirit guardians or keepers, and some animals were believed to be messengers or servants of their gods and goddesses. Caves, hills, springs, rivers, lakes, bogs and other features of the landscape were seen as significant places and perhaps the gateway to the “Other” or Underworld or possibly inhabited by a guardian spirit or divinity. They made shrines and sanctuaries in or near such places and also in sacred groves of trees called nemetons.

Springs and rivers were often named these after their divinities. For example, in Gaul, the River Marne is named after the goddess Dea Matrona, and in Ireland, the goddess Boann gives her name to the River Boyne, and the River Shannon is named after the goddess Sionnan. Healing cults often based themselves at or near natural springs. For example, the hot springs of Sulis became associated with Aquae Sulis, now Bath, Somerset, while the goddess Arnemetia was followed at Aquae Arnemetiae, now Buxton, in Derbyshire. Further evidence of the Celtic veneration of watery places is the number of votive objects in and around such areas. Such objects included:

  • Wooden carvings or objects.
  • Metalwork.
  • Models of animals and birds.
  • Occasional human sacrifice.
  • Sometimes, models of body parts were offered by those seeking cures for ailments.

Spirits of the Weather and Sky

The Celts saw the sun, weather and its associated phenomena, such as thunder, as living entities needing respecting, honouring and acknowledging. Taranis, the god of thunder, was exceptionally potent. His icon was a spoked wheel, and archaeologists have found inscriptions referring to him in various Celtic regions, including Britain, Germany, Gaul and the Balkans.

According to the Roman poet Lucan, the worship of Taranis included the use of human sacrifice. After the Romans gained ascendancy over the Celts, they merged their god, Jupiter, with the Celtic Taranis. Roman soldiers posted to Hadrian’s Wall, and Cologne set up altars decorated with wheels and similar designs dedicated to him.

In Irish, Manx, and Scottish mythology, a storm hag called the Cailleach was a different divinity associated with the weather. She was a personification of winter who caused the first snows by washing her plaid in the Gulf of Corryvreckan. Her plaid was so big it took three days to clean, and the storm roaring is heard twenty miles inland. After she finishes her task, her plaid is pure white and covers the land as snow.

Animal Omens

The Celts closely monitored the behaviour of birds and beasts, sometimes seeing omens in their behaviour. They also associated certain spirits or divinities with certain animals. The ursine goddess Artio was named after the Gaulish name for “bear”, and the horse goddess Epona was named after their name for a horse.

For the Celts, the physical attributes of an animal and its characteristics and behaviour were seen as worthy of great respect and admiration. Some animals, such as stags or horses, were admired for their speed, endurance, beauty and virility. Dogs were respected for being keen-scented and swift and for their hunting ability. They were also esteemed for being good guards and having the ability to self-heal. Snakes were respected for their ability to shed their skins, appearing to renew themselves and were seen as symbolic of renewal and eternal life. The Celts not only admired the essential qualities of animals, but they acknowledged and accepted they often possessed attributes that humans lacked or were in some way deficient.

The Hunt

Image by diego_torres from Pixabay

There were also deities of the hunt, emphasising the economic importance and utility of the hunted. The hunted were respected and revered by the hunters, who realised the death of the hunted gave life to the hunter, and this cycle was seen in nature repeatedly. Thus, this gave the Celtic gods a paradoxical role between protector and benefactor of the hunters and the hunted.

According to the 2nd-century Greek writer Adrian, the Celts would not go hunting until they had sought the god’s blessing. Sometimes, they sacrificed domestic animals to the relevant divinities in payment for what they would take from the wild or performed appropriate rituals. There is an idea that hunting was more than just a practical activity to provide a game for the pot. The killing of the unfortunate beast and the shedding of its blood may symbolically have brought nourishment and renewal to the forest and nature. Therefore, in a living conscious world, it was necessary to respect and celebrate the life of the victim whose death helped to bring vitality and life back into the world while keeping the Celt alive.

The Celtic Belief System

The belief system of the ancient Celts was complicated and multilayered, but so was the world they lived in. This world was many things at once, both marvellous and dangerous, and a theatre where many different living beings continuously play out the enigma of life and death. Even in the calmest and most peaceful moments, a deadly battle for survival is always near. The winners live, and the losers die, becoming food for the victor. It may only be something as small as a spider trapping and killing a fly in its web, but these moments of high drama are played out continuously for the observant human attuned to nature. The struggle of life and death is omnipresent. Even without falling prey to some predator, living things die in time. Yet, they are replaced in a cycle of death and renewal that keeps the world populated with multitudes of living beings.

The ancient Celts could see this in the forests, mountains, and the world and developed their belief system to reflect what they saw and understood and explain the marvellous phenomena they observed all around them. Although scholars often disagree over these matters, it is your decision what, if anything, the Celtic form of animism means to you and your life.

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Celtic Mythology: Mixing Animals, Birds, Humans and Gods

Swan image by John James Audubon – Public Domain – From Wikimedia Commons

This article by zteve t evans was first published on FolkloreThursday.com on 30th July, 2020 under the title, Mixing Animals, Birds, Humans and Gods in Celtic Mythology and has been revided, edited and update 25 February 2024.

Animals, Birds, Humans and Gods

The ancient Celts deeply revered animals and birds, considering them an integral part of their daily lives and mythology. They explored the complexities and rewards of the human condition through stories of animals, birds, humans, and gods, which continue to captivate us today. The following work briefly explores how they mixed animals, birds, and humans with their gods to accomplish this.

The Dream of Aengus

Swans were highly respected in Celtic mythology and held a special place in Irish folklore. In Irish mythology, “The Dream of Aengus” revolves around a young deity named Aengus, who falls in love with a Caer Ibormeith, the goddess of sleep and dreams whom he sees in his dreams. Aengus set out to find her and discovered that she had been a mortal woman placed under a spell, transforming her into a swan. Every other Samhain, she would change from swan to human for one day at sunset. Afterwards, she would revert to her swan form for one year until the next Samhain, when the cycle would repeat.

He finally found her at the Loch of the Dragon’s Mouth along with one hundred and fifty swans chained together in pairs. He was told he had to choose which swan was the woman of his dreams, and fortunately chose correctly. He transformed into a swan, and the two flew away, singing beautiful songs that put those who heard them to sleep for three days and nights.

The Cŵn Annwn

The Cŵn Annwn appear in Welsh mythology as a pack of spectral hounds whose masters were the Kings of Annwn. They had white coats and red ears, colouring that associated them with the Otherworld. Their earliest known master was Arawn, a King of Annwn. Later, Gwyn ap Nudd appeared to take over the role. One of their hunting grounds was believed to be the Welsh mountain of Cadir Idris.

According to Welsh tradition, when the Cŵn Annwn were hunting, the noise they made in the chase was like flocks of migrating geese, which sounded like packs of hunting dogs. It was believed to be an omen of death for anyone who heard their howling, which seemed loudest from a distance but grew quieter as the hounds closed in. The Cŵn Annwn hunted human souls who were caught in a silver net. Certain places such as crossroads, graveyards or stiles were good hunting places for the Cŵn Annwn because human souls were most vulnerable at these sites.

Donn Cúailnge and Finnbennach

Two Bulls Fighting by George Stubbs, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Bulls were given great status in Irish mythology, and one story tells of the battles around Donn Cúailnge, or the Brown Bull of Cooley. The story begins with Queen Maeve and her husband, Ailill, comparing each other’s possessions to see who was the more powerful. It became apparent that it was Ailill because he possessed a massive white bull named Finnbennach.

The only bull in Ireland that could match Finnbennach was Donn Cúailnge, the Brown Bull of Cooley. Maeve decided she must have the brown bull and went to war to steal it. She cast a spell, causing the defenders to fall asleep, hoping to take the bull without a fight.

Cuchulainn was the only warrior left awake, who alone remained unaffected by the spell and invoked the Irish tradition of single combat, stalling Maeve’s army. While these battles ensued, Maeve tracked down Donn Cúailnge but could not hold on to him, and he escaped, causing carnage. Eventually, she does manage to steal Donn Cúailnge, and he fights and kills Finnbennach, giving Maeve greater status than her husband.

The Twrch Trwyth

Boar by Niko Pirosmani, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Twrch Trwyth was a supernatural wild boar in Welsh mythology. Its bristles were poisonous, and on its head, between its ears, it carried a comb, a pair of scissors and a razor stuck fast in the thick, wiry hair between its ears.


In the story of Culwhch and Olwen, Culwhch falls in love with Olwen, the daughter of a dangerous giant named Ysbaddaden. To gain permission to marry her, he had to complete a set of impossible tasks given to him by Ysbaddaden. One of these tasks required him to cut the giant’s hair and beard with the implements carried by the Twrch Trwyth, but to obtain these needed to hunt down the magical boar.

The only hound capable of this was Drudwyn, but the only man who could manage Drudwyn was Mabon, son of Modrun. However, no one knew where or how to find him, and Culwhch called upon his cousin King Arthur for help. Arthur agreed and accompanied by a band of followers, embarked on a series of adventures. Eventually, they find Mabon, and the hunting of the boar commenced.

The shape-shifting Menw, one of Arthur’s followers, is sent ahead to find the magical boar to ensure the grooming tools are still fixed between its ears. Seeing the boar, he transforms into a bird and, swooping down, tries to steal one of the implements. Unfortunately, he only grasped a silver bristle from the boar, which wounded him. The boar kills several pursuers before the implements are finally won, and Arthur drives it into the sea.

Rhiannon and Horses

Rhiannon 26 February 2024

Rhiannon, a woman, or divinity from the Otherworld, is associated with Sovereignty, horses, and the Celtic horse goddess Epona, or Macha. She is featured in the Welsh tale of Pwyll Pendefig Dyfed, or Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed, in the First Branch of the Mabinogi, and the story of Manawydan Son of Llŷr, in the Third Branch of the Mabinogi.

She first appears to Pwyll, riding a magical white horse and wearing a brocade of golden silk. Pwyll was enthralled by her and dispatched his fastest riders to bring her to him. Despite the unhurried gait of the white horse, Rhiannon easily maintained her distance, forcing them to give up.

The same happened the next day. On the third day, Pwyll gave chase himself, but the white horse of Rhiannon easily outpaced his own. In desperation, he cried out for her to stop. Rhiannon obliged but rebuked him for not asking her before. She then explained that although she is betrothed to Gwawl ap Clud, she does not love him and asked Pwyll to marry her instead.

Pwyll agreed, and during their wedding feast, a mysterious man appeared and asked him for a favour. Foolishly, Pwyll agrees, unaware that the man is Gwawl and is shocked when he requests Rhiannon in marriage. Pwyll is honour bound to fulfil the request, but Rhiannon hatches a plot to foil it. The plot succeeds, and Gwawl is forced to give up his claim to Rhiannon and forget all acts of vengeance against her and Pwyll. The two are married, and eventually, she gives birth to a son.

On the night of the birth, the nurses tending to the baby fall asleep, and the baby disappears. Fearing they would be blamed and put to death, they kill a puppy and smear its blood on the face of Rhiannon as she sleeps. The following morning, they go to Pwyll, accusing Rhiannon of killing and eating the baby. Pwyll still loves his wife but makes her do penance. Every day, she must sit before the castle gate by the stables, tell her tale to all travellers that pass by, and offer to carry them on her back. Despite her alleged crime, Pwyll keeps her as his wife and queen.

Meanwhile, Teyrnon, Lord of Gwent-Is-Coed and a breeder of horses, has a fine mare that foals yearly. Unfortunately, to his dismay, that foal goes missing every year. After standing watch over the birthing mare, he discovers that the foals are stolen by a mysterious giant claw that enters through a window. As the claw tries to steal the newborn foal, he strikes it with his sword, and it lets go. Rushing outside, he finds the claw gone and a baby boy instead.

He and his wife adopt the boy, who grows phenomenally fast. They name him Gwri of the Golden Hair, and he soon matures to develop a great affinity with horses. Teyrnon once served Pwyll and recognised the resemblance the boy bore to him. He takes him to Pwyll, who realised he was his lost son, and lifts Rhiannon’s penance and clears her of infanticide.

Celtic Stories

These five summaries of stories from Wales and Ireland are a small part of the myths and legends that tell of the history of the Celtic people. There are many more from across the Celtic world that make a rich pantheon of literature and knowledge worthy of further study and enjoyment. They take the reader to strange, dangerous, and magical places and explore human nature and Celtic society compared to the natural world and the times those stories come from.

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Medieval Lore: The Lady and the Unicorn Tapestries

Sixth Sense – “À Mon Seul Désir” cropped

This article was first published 28th May, 2020 on #FolkloreThursday.com titled, Unicorn Lore: Interpreting the Lady and the Unicorn Tapestries, by zteve t evans and has been revised, edited and exra images added 13 Feb 2024.

The Elusive Unicorn

The rare, elusive, mythical, magical unicorn has been part of world folklore and legend for centuries, evolving spectacularly into the modern age. Unicorn-themed products, including toys and art pieces, are widely available in the market and featured in various media forms such as literature, films, and television. During the medieval and Renaissance eras, the unicorn was a popular subject in works of art, tapestries, and coats-of-arms of the wealthy and powerful, influencing the modern perception of the mythical creature. Below is an overview and brief discussion of six late medieval tapestries called “The Lady and the Unicorn” or “La Dame à la licorne.” Today, these designs are replicated in various places, notably adorning the walls of Gryffindor Common Room in the Harry Potter movies.

The Lady and the Unicorn

These tapestries were believed to have been created around 1500 but became lost and rediscovered in the 19th century in the Château de Boussac, Creuse, France. In 1882, they were moved to Paris to the Musée de Cluny, which became the Musée National du Moyen Âge. In length, the tapestries total twenty metres, requiring great skill, patience, and time to create. The best available materials were used and would have been massively expensive to produce. Only a select few of society’s wealthiest and most influential members could have commissioned such a costly work in those days.

Interpreting the Lady and the Unicorn Tapestries

Why the tapestries were first commissioned, and their original meaning and purpose remains a mystery lost through the ages but argued about today. Medieval people would have understood what each of the figures, motifs and symbols in each scene meant and how they were all part of an extended allegory that came together to create an overall meaning or message. Today, multiple theories exist regarding the interpretation of these pieces of art. However, the most widely accepted theory among art historians is that the six tapestries are allegorical works symbolizing the five human senses of sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. In this theory, the sixth and centre piece of the set represents a sixth sense. The six scenes depict a medieval realm where myth and folklore interact with the natural and human worlds, mixed with Christian spirituality and morality. In each scene, the lady and the unicorn take a significant role, supported by a lion and a monkey, with many other depictions of fauna and flora in the background. The unicorn and the lion usually appear holding a standard that frames the lady, except in the tapestry representing sight.

Sight

Sight

This tapestry depicts the unicorn laying its forelegs in the lady’s lap. In medieval myth and legend, unicorns were the fiercest and swiftest creatures and could only be captured and tamed by a virgin sitting in the woods patiently waiting for one to approach and tamely lay its head in her lap in surrender. This scene shows a unicorn being tamed by the virgin or mollified earlier by her. The lady holds a golden mirror, and the unicorn appears to gaze at its reflection. However, the mirror is positioned to show the aspect of the unicorn that the lady sees of the animal. This scene depicts that it has given up its standard bearer role, leaving the lion to bear a single standard.

Hearing

Hearing – Musée de Cluny, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The lady appears with a female companion in this tapestry. The sense of hearing is represented by a musical instrument, known as a positive or pipe organ, played by the lady. The unicorn and the lion frame the scene and appear captivated by the sound. Smaller images of the unicorn and lion appear on the upright posts of the instrument. The lady plays the instrument while her smaller companion squeezes the bellows behind that pump the air through the pipes, creating the musical sounds. Musical ability was a highly regarded skill, and being an accomplished musician was considered noble, courtly, and an attribute of high personal refinement.

Taste

Taste – Musée de Cluny, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In this tapestry, the lady is feeding a delicacy to her parrot. There is also a monkey present, which also appears to be eating. During these times, it was not unusual to see monkeys in images as they represented the lower or shameful instincts humans needed to keep under control. Other animals present are a lion cub and an immature unicorn that has yet to grow a horn. The scenes are set in an enclosed garden, often where courtly love occurs. In Christian symbolism, it was a place of purity and was believed to symbolize impenetrability and the virginity of the Virgin Mary. On the lady’s belt is a pomegranate, a symbol of fertility and associated with the hunting of the unicorn.

Touch

Touch

In the tapestry representing touch, the lady is alone in the garden with her animals or pets. She is holding a banner in one hand, which invokes the sense of touch. In the other, she grasps the upright horn of the unicorn, suggesting the unicorn is a substitute for her lover.

One interpretation of this scene is that she captured and tamed the unicorn’s heart. In the background, the monkey, cheetah, leopard, and other animals are wearing collars, reinforcing the idea of their capture and mastery by her and possibly indicating she has tamed her lower animal instincts. The lady wears a tiara over her loose hair; in medieval allegory, loose-flowing hair suggests virginity. She is wearing a dark blue velvet dress lined with ermine, another symbol of purity. Wide ornamental bands adorned with gold and precious gems edge the dress.

Smell

Smell

This tapestry presenting the allegory of the sense of smell shows the lady making a garland of fragrant carnations. The allegory is reinforced by a monkey smelling a rose. The garland of flowers was often used as a motif in the symbolism of love, and lonely lovers were frequently shown in garden settings weaving flower garlands. The carnation was symbolic of profane and sacred love and was fashionable then. Another fashion was how the lady wore her bracelets at the wrist instead of higher up the arm. In all the tapestries, the heraldic symbols on display are those of the Le Viste family, but in this tapestry, the coat of arms worn by the lion is running the wrong way.

6th Sense, or “À mon seul désir”

Sixth Sense – “À Mon Seul Désir”

The sixth tapestry is known as the Sixth Sense or “À mon seul désir” in French and “My Sole Desire” in English because these words are written in a mysterious message depicted around the top of the blue pavilion. This enigmatic phrase is seen as the key to its interpretation. The scene depicted on the tapestry can be interpreted in several ways. It could represent a sixth sense if interpreted as an extended allegory of the senses like the other tapestries. The sixth sense in medieval times referred to the heart, mind, and soul as one sense which was not only the source of morality but also that of carnal desire. Although it could refer to a more romantic interpretation, it can also be interpreted as moral reasoning or free will. Here, the lady appears to be placing jewels in a casket, but paradoxically, she could be taking them out. There is a question as to whether she is accepting the jewels and, in doing so, accepting the pleasures of the senses, or rejecting them and the earthly treasures they represent. Whichever she is doing, she is doing so by her own free will or sole desire. Another theory is that if the mystery phrase is translated as “my unique desire,” the idea arises that only humans covet material objects such as jewelry, making us exceptional among life on Earth because no other creature does this. Yet, because of our unique desires, we are not entirely in the natural world around us or the mythical world we create.

Myth and Nature

The six scenes depict the lady accompanied by various animals amid numerous plants in a world where myth and nature are interwoven to create an overall statement. We may never know these stunning tapestries’ original message and purpose, but their mystery and beauty remain.

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Cat Tales: Puss in Boots and the Marquis of Carabas

Carl Offterdinger – Public domain -From Wikimedia Commons

This article was first published 19th March 2020 on #FolkloreThursday.com titled, The Legendary Puss in Boots and the Marquis of Carabas, by zteve t evans and revised, edited and updated 15 February 2024, images may differ from original.

The Master Cat

Some people believe cats to be superior beings who carefully train their humans to provide for their needs. Charles Perrault’s story “The Master Cat or Puss in Boots” is a retelling of earlier tales about a magical cat, and the following is my rewriting of the story.

Death of the Miller

The story begins with the death of a miller who left everything he had to his three sons. The eldest son inherited the mill, the second eldest son inherited a donkey, and the youngest son inherited a cat. The young man complained to his brothers, “You are lucky! You might earn a living from your inheritance by working together, but of what use is a cat?”

Overhearing the conversation, Puss was a little troubled and, like cats do, sat in a cardboard box to think things through. After a while, Puss approached the young man and said, “Master, don’t worry about your safety. If you give me a bag and a new pair of boots, I will show you that things are much better for you than you think.”

Although his master did not see it, he was fond of the cat. He knew the Puss was very clever because he had seen the tricks he had invented to catch the rodents around the mill. For instance, he had observed him hanging upside down by his heels from a beam and then dropping on unsuspecting victims as they passed underneath him. He also habitually hid in sacks of grain to spring out to surprise his prey. Occasionally, he would pretend to be dead to catch unwary victims off guard. But soon, he would realise how intelligent his cat really was.

Puss in Boots

Carl Offterdinger, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Feeling very pleased with himself, and his capture, Puss went to see the king at his palace and, bowing low, said, “Greetings, Your Majesty! My master, the Marquis of Carabas, offers you this fine rabbit as a gift from” his own warren!”

The king was impressed and rewarded the Marquis with money. Every day, Puss would catch a bird or rabbit in the countryside and bring it to the king, telling His Majesty it was a gift from the Marquis of Carabas. In return, the king rewarded him with money, which he gave to the young man.

One day, while he was at the palace, he overheard that the king and his beautiful daughter were to go for a carriage ride in the country. Therefore, he advised his master, “Do as I say, and your fortune will be made. Just go to the river and bathe, and I will do the rest.”

The Marquis of Carabos

While bathing, the cat hid his master’s clothes under a nearby rock. As the king and his daughter passed by, Puss cried, “Help! Help! Help! The Marquis of Carabas has been thrown into the river, and he is drowning. Someone please help him!”

The king saw it was the cat who had brought him presents. He ordered the carriage to halt and his guards to rescue the Marquis. Puss informed the king that robbers had attacked his master, stolen his clothes, and thrown him into the river. The young man rolled his eyes skyward at the audacity of his cat, but a quick look from Puss warned him to play the part.

His Majesty was horrified upon hearing this news. He dispatched his fastest servant to retrieve a new set of clothes from his royal wardrobe. Fine clothes were brought, and the Marquis was handsomely dressed. The king’s beautiful daughter cast admiring eyes upon him, and the Marquis was instantly besotted with her.

The king invited the young man to join him and his daughter in the carriage for a leisurely ride. Feeling pleased with how his plan unfolded, Puss ran ahead and soon came across a group of workers reaping a cornfield. He told “them sternly, “My good men listen carefully. When the king passes by and asks who this corn belongs to, you must tell him it belongs to the Marquis of Carabas. If you fail, you will be chopped into fine pieces!”

As the king’s carriage passed, His Majesty put his head out the window and asked who owned the cornfield. The reapers replied, “Sire, it belongs to the Marquis of Carabas!”

As the king’s carriage moved along the road, a clever cat ran ahead, ensuring all workers replied to the king’s questions as instructed. The king was most impressed with the productive and well-managed fields the Marquis of Carabas appeared to own and praised him as they travelled.

The Ogre and his Castle

Puss ran ahead of the carriage and arrived at a magnificent castle which belonged to the most wicked and powerful ogre in the land. As it turned out, all the estates that Puss had led them through so far were owned by this ogre.

He rushed to the castle gates and rang the bell. When the gate was opened, he told the gatekeeper that he was passing by but wanted to pay his respects to the lord, this magnificent castle, who was clearly an important and influential figure.

The ogre loved to be flattered and fawned upon and agreed to see him. Puss bowed low before him, saying, “Thank you for seeing me. While nearby, I simply had to come and beg you to meet me to see just how magnificent and powerful you are!”

Immensely flattered, the ogre asked if there was anything he could do for him. “Puss replied, “I hear you have the power to transform yourself into any kind of animal that you choose. For example, I hear you can change yourself into a lion.”

The ogre replied, “Yes, I” will show you!” and immediately became a lion. When he had changed back, Puss said, “Most Impressive! I have been told you can change your gigantic self into a tiny mouse. I find it hard to believe anyone so great and powerful” could do that!”

The ogre, enjoying the flattery, cried, “I will show you just how” powerful I am!” Instantly, he transformed into a tiny mouse scampering around the floor. In a flash, the crafty cat jumped upon the mouse and ate it up.

Outside, the king’s carriage was passing by the castle. The king was most impressed by the fine-looking castle and ordered his coachman to take him to the gates as he wished to see inside. As the coach approached the drawbridge, the gates were flung wide open. Out marched Puss to greet the king, saying, “Your Majesty, welcome to the castle of the Marquis of Carabas!”

The Castle of the Marquis of Carabas

The king and his daughter were most impressed. “This is the finest castle I have ever seen,” he told the Marquis. “I would very much like to have a look around if I may!” The Marquis agreed readily. They disembarked from the carriage, and he offered his hand to the princess as they followed the king, who was escorted by Puss. Soon, they found themselves in the banqueting hall.

The ogre had planned to entertain friends and ordered a magnificent feast. With the demise of their wicked master, Puss had easily persuaded the servants to serve the Marquis and his royal guests, and they sat down to eat. After a few glasses of good wine, the king was even more impressed with the Marquis of Carabas and said, “You know, you will only have yourself to blame if you do not become my son-in-law!”

His beautiful daughter made it clear this would be agreeable, and the young man formally proposed marriage to the princes, which was readily accepted, and they were married that same day. The king confirmed the Marquis as lord of the castle and all the surrounding estates, and the young man finally realised how lucky he had been to inherit such a clever cat.

Cats!

From then on, Puss soon made himself at home in the fine castle, living a life of luxury. Despite his remarkable cleverness, Puss remained, first and foremost, a cat. Like all cats, he was always fascinated with things that wriggled or scampered. Sometimes, when feeling energetic, he would catch the odd mouse or frog and present it to his master.

Occasionally, he would sit in a cardboard box in the middle of the floor, looking exceedingly pleased with himself for no reason that could be guessed. Nevertheless, for all his cleverness, he still could not use a tin opener! Therefore, every morning, he would jump on his master’s bed and sit on his chest, kneading him with his paws as a subtle hint that it was breakfast time. More often than not, he could be found lounging in a chair by the fire, where he would luxuriously stretch and lazily say, “Ha! Now, who is the Master?”

Cats!

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The Celebrated Frost Fairs of the River Thames, London.

Thomas_Wyke-_Thames_frost_fair.jpg
1683-84 Frost Fair Thomas Wyke [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons (cropped)

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com as London Folklore: The Legendary Frost Fairs of the River Thames by zteve t evans on December 27, 2018, and has been revised and edited with images added 4 March 2024 by zteve t evans.

Thames Frost Fairs

The historic Frosts Fairs held on the River Thames in London are depicted in several works of art that show how cold, icy, and severe the weather became during those events compared to the weather experienced in the capital in modern times. The idea of a Frost Fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem like a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favorite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames Frost Fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode, the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames Frost Fairs are featured in two tracks on “Snow on Snow” by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainment and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal. Nevertheless, it has happened several times in the past. Here, we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners, what they did, and how they coped in those frigid times.

The Little Ice Age

The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many large and small businesses flourish around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats crewed by watermen, who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked, and died around the river, and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which still exist today. With the great river’s importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly stopped flowing and froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it?

A series of sudden exceptionally cold periods of extreme wintery weather have caused this to happen several times. Although such a notion may seem nothing but legend and folklore, it is a historical fact that the River Thames has frozen several times, hard enough for usual daily commerce to be temporarily impossible. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the Little Ice Age that lasted from 1300 to 1870. Expert opinion varies on this and the causes and is not dealt with here. It was also known to have frozen over in even earlier times. During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the center of London on the Thames ice. In 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river.

The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750, and during the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. However, when it did freeze over, it brought the river and much of the city’s daily business to an abrupt halt. Nevertheless, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, changed what they did to suit the weather. In its frozen state, the river became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension of the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun and Londoners like to have fun.

The First Frost Fair (1607-08)

Great Frost -Printed at London: For Henry Gosson, 1608. Attributed to Thomas Dekker Dekker – Houghton Library, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1608, the first recorded London Frost Fair occurred on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December 1607, the ice was thick enough for people to walk from Southwark to the city. By January 1608, the ice was thick and solid enough for a host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up, selling many diverse kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking.

The Frozen Thames 1677 – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Among them, skittles, bowling, and many other sports and activities took place for people to enjoy and participate in. Another popular game was “folk” football, unlike modern football, where two teams compete, and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with few rules which often became chaotic, unrestrained, riotous events.

The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84

The diarist, writer and Fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on-the-spot, eye-witness account of the event often called the Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84. On January 6, 1684, in his diary, he wrote,

“The frost continues more and more severe; the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this hum our took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc.

Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple and from several other stairs to and from, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in. (1)

1684 Frost Fair – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One name, Croom, had the idea of cashing in on the event’s novelty by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name and the date and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular, and Croon was said to make five pounds daily. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. This impromptu frost fair began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment.

The sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired many enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the severe weather while making money and having fun at the same time. Despite the cold, young and old folk flocked to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the various activities and events that suddenly sprang up.

From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684, we learn that hackney carriages and horse-drawn carts used the frozen river as a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments and booths that sold hot coffee and food, 

Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack,
Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack.
In this same street before the Temple was made,
There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade:

There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe,
And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox;
Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise,
The like before we’re seen beneath the Skies; (2)

Events such as blood sports and folk football took place, and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more people flocked onto the frozen Thames, there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example,

Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign,
As seldom hath been seen in former time;
The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same,
The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name: (3)

With its increasing popularity, there was more money to be made, and even more diverse trades set up shop on the ice. As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment, it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold, and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. Not everyone approved of what was happening on the Thames ice. For some people, the drunkenness and debauchery among the revelers and the shady dealings of many river traders caused concern that it was bringing out the worst in people.

The Frost Fair of 1715-16

Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when heavy snowfalls blanketed the city, and it was so cold that the Thames froze for almost three months. Once again, London entrepreneurs took to the ice, erecting booths, tents, and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked onto the frozen river to have fun. On January 19, two oxen were roasted over fires upon the ice. The activities on the frozen river drew people away from the theatres, and the Prince of Wales visited the Frost Fair.

Once again, entrepreneurial printers set stalls on the ice, publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers, and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawks’ Newsletter, and on January 14, the news was,

“The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4)

Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts, and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with an enthusiastic sermon.

The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormally high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revelers out of their stride. On February 15, the ice began to thaw and split, ending the party.

The Great Frost of 1739-40

The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames Frost Fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year before finally beginning to slowly thaw on February 17 and becoming known as The Great Frost. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The less impoverished and working-class citizens struggled to find food, fuel, and water. With the weather so bad, many traders, such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers, and many other trades, could not operate. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city, who granted some relief to the suffering people.

A few days after the arrival of the Great Frost, a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary, causing considerable damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river to create an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice and icebergs protruding through the icy white surface.

When the weather settled, another Frost Fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames, selling all sorts of goods and services. Again, the printers were there, and there were the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a wide variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties that the severe weather brought. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up.

The Frost Fair of 1767-68

At the end of December 1767, a severe frost began and strengthened until January 16, causing the River Thames to freeze again. Ships, boats, and river vessels became trapped in the ice, and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flowing with the tides. During this period, many lives were lost, and the price of meat and food increased so much that impoverished people could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies for bringing fish to the Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. Nevertheless, the less well-off citizens suffered great hardship in London and the surrounding countryside, where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel, and food became scarce and expensive because they could not be transported, and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city, amounting to £50,000, a considerable sum of money in those days.

The Frost Fair of 1788-89

A severe frost began on November 25, 1788, and lasted seven weeks. On January 5, the Thames froze over, as before, a fair and market with puppet shows, drinking and eating booths, and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice.

The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on January 10, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. The clerk of the cellars paid them four guineas, but when His Highness heard of their feat, he ordered them to be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On January 13, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 to relieve the impoverished during the severe weather.

On Saturday, January 17, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his boat to his premises, which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast. At the same time, a cable was attached to a structural beam of the building. In the night, the weather and currents took hold of the ship, causing the publican’s structure to be destroyed and five people killed. (5)

The magazine also reports that in February 1789, entertainment and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames with all manner of entertainment. All kinds of food and drinks were sold with fires roasting oxen, sheep, and pigs. Once again, the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, yet, despite the merriment, the poorer citizens suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money, and the City of London raised 1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6)

The Last Frost Fair (1814)

The Fair on the Thames, February 4th 1814 – Luke Clenell – Public Domain – via Wikimedia Commons

The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames began on February 1, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous Frost Fairs, an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed, and published a 124-page book titled Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again, stalls and booths sprang up, selling a vast array of goods, wares, and services. The watermen, unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread.

While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were readily available, gin, beer and wine were more popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents, “temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice, including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry onto the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. Often, the same families whose ancestors had provided these services for previous Frost Fairs were the providers this time. The atmosphere was raucous, with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There were no policemen in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. As previously mentioned, one of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, creating an extraordinary scene.

Problems and Hardship

Frost Fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolic; they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us,

“The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7)

When the ice started to melt and break up, it became treacherous, causing death to people and animals, damage to property, and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people in the countryside, other parts of the UK, and Europe.

Future Frost Fairs

The Old London Bridge (1176-1825) was one of the most iconic images of London and partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower, broader, and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow unimpeded. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London, with the same intensity as in the past.

Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete, and heated buildings, which helps keep London warmer in winter than areas outside the capital. Conversely, in the summer, it can make it uncomfortably warmer. That being said, no one knows what the future will bring with global warming, and there may be a few surprises.

London Folklore

The Thames Frost Fairs became a part of the rich bank of London folklore. Works of art and literature of the time give future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these rare unique events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The Frost Fairs were a testament to the endurance and enterprising spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what must have been tough times for many people.

As time passed, legends emerged from historical events as facts became exaggerated and embellished, enhancing their novelty for later generations whose curiosity is aroused by the differences between what they experience in the present and what happened in the past.

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The Griffin: The Legendary King of All Creatures

Knossos fresco in throne palace – CC BY-SA 3.0
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com, 18/04/2019, under the title, Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of all Creatures, written by zteve t evans. Edited and revised by zteve t evans 13 April 2024 images may differ from original.

King of all Creatures

The griffin, a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle, has been depicted in diverse styles and manners throughout various human cultures. Its unique and intriguing form has captivated the imagination of many and continues to be a source of inspiration for artists and storytellers alike. They were also known by several other names, including griffon, griffon, or gryphon. The creature’s eagle head represents its keen vision and intelligence, while the lion’s body signifies strength and courage. The eagle part of the creature was sometimes covered in feathers, while the lion part was fur.


In ancient times, lions were considered the “king of the beasts,” while eagles were the “king of the birds.” The griffin, a hybrid of these two, inherited both qualities, making it an extremely powerful entity and the “king of all creatures.” Although they were often depicted as having wings there are some wingless examples. For instance, a fine example was found in the palace of Knossos shown above. The palace of Knossos was the ancient ceremonial and political centre of the Bronze Age Minoan civilisation on Crete. It is described as the earliest in Europe, indicating the motif’s age and importance.

Griffins in Mythology

Tapestry – anonymous, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Griffins are depicted in the art and myths of many ancient cultures, including Iran, Anatolia, Egypt, Europe, and India. In early Greek mythos and art, they were portrayed as majestic beasts pulling the chariots of the gods Zeus and Apollo, through whom they became associated with the sun. Griffins were also portrayed as the servants of Nemesis, the Greek goddess of retribution and vengeance who punished mortals who defied the moral order or committed hubris against the gods. They symbolised the quick and inevitable justice that Nemesis would deliver, embodying her role as the keeper of the balance of fortune and the avenger of crime. Their fierce and vigilant nature made them suitable symbols for the goddess’s authority and her function within the pantheon to restore balance. They were her guardians of equilibrium and agents for executing retribution on offenders.


Alexander the Great

Alexander Flyin With Griffins – Jean Wauquelin, 1448-1449 – Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In legends and medieval literature, griffins have an intriguing connection with Alexander the Great. In the 12th-century romance “Roman d’Alexandre,” Alexander and his followers encounter griffins after leaving the country of Tradiaque during their legendary explorations and conquests. The griffins proved to be formidable foes, and Alexander’s army suffered significant losses in battle against them. However, his archers succeeded in shooting down the griffins from the sky. Another tale tells how Alexander the Great once utilized two large griffins to pull a cage in which he sat in between the two. To encourage their efforts, he held meat on skewers above their heads to entice them to fly.


Guardians of Treasure


Griffins were often viewed as protectors of valuable artefacts and treasures. They were connected to gold and safeguarded gold mines, frequently appearing as sentinels on tombs. According to Pliny, the Elder, griffins were believed to lay their eggs in nests set in burrows lined with golden nuggets. However, other accounts suggest that these mythical creatures built their nests like eagles and laid semi-precious stone eggs, like agate.


The Arimaspi

Aristeas of Proconnesus, a semi-legendary Greek poet, writes about the Arimaspi, a tribe of one-eyed people. They lived in the northern part of Scythia, near the Riphean Mountains, between the cave of Boreas, the Greek god of the north wind, and the Hyperborean region. The Arimaspi had a reputation for trying to steal gold from the griffins, which was often portrayed in works of art. The Arimaspi rode horses in their attacks, and from this evolved the hostility of the griffin for horses and were often depicted assailing and killing them.


According to mythology griffins and horses occasionally mated, giving birth to a hybrid creature known as the hippogriff or hippogryph. This creature had the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a horse, making it a symbol of love. Horses and griffins were believed to be natural enemies; hence, the hippogriff represented the unison of two opposing forces.


Dinosaurs

In regions north of the Black Sea, Scythians tattooed their bodies with griffin images that lacked wings; instead, they had a large frill on the back of their necks. The fossils of the beaked dinosaur Protoceratops found in the region may resemble them. Adrienne Mayor, a classical folklorist, and historian of science, suggests that griffins may have been inspired by fossilised remains such as these. Although not all scholars accept this theory, Mayor proposes that travellers or traders in regions of Scythia may have seen these remains and interpreted them as belonging to griffins.


Symbolism and Allegory

Many legendary, mythical, or fabulous creatures were hybrids or composites of two or more animals. In addition to their physical features, they carried the special characteristics of the subject animals, such as boldness, speed, and grace, combining to become one powerful fantastic beast with all the strengths and qualities of its compositive creatures. Furthermore, they became symbolic representations of virtues and attributes, expressing a greater meaning to those with specific knowledge.


Before the ability to read and write became widespread, symbols were an elegant form of language that conveyed specific information, and they are still used for that purpose today. Since ancient times, people have needed to identify themselves and pass on information for many reasons, such as warfare, business, and religious and social reasons. Images and symbols were chosen to represent individuals and organisations and their personal qualities and attributes, and the griffin was a popular choice for many. As such, the griffin had the traditional qualities such as strength, courage, and ferocity of a lion, together with the eagle’s speed, vision, and intelligence.


These qualities were attractive to leaders in war, religion, and politics. In the fine arts of Europe, the griffin appeared in works such as tapestries and illustrations and began to take on Christian symbolism. Griffins were believed to remain with one partner for life and would not take a new mate even if their partner died. Hence, the Church saw them as being symbolic of marital fidelity. Furthermore, as a fusion of a bird of the air and a creature of the earth, it was seen as a symbol for Jesus, who was both human and divine, and in Christian symbolism represents divine power and guardianship of the holy and is often depicted in churches calmly and patiently on guard.


Griffins in Heraldry

Jerzy Bąk, vectorization: Bastianow (Bastian), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In medieval heraldry, the griffin symbolised watchfulness and courage and was the guardian of treasure. As the king of the beasts, the lion is seen more frequently than any other animal in heraldry, while the eagle, the king of the birds, is the bird found the most often. There is an idea that there was a rivalry between these two creatures that paralleled the friction between dominant political powers in medieval Europe. The fusion of the two combines the power of the lion and the eagle, and the resulting hybrid stands for strength, military power, courage, intelligence, and leadership. In heraldry, the male griffin is presented without wings for unknown reasons. Instead, it has sharp ray-like spikes from various parts of its body representing sunrays, and sometimes, it is given two tusks or horns.


Varieties of Griffin

Traditionally, there were two main types of griffins: the Hyperborean, or northern griffin and the Indian griffin. The Hyperborean griffin was found in the forested hills and mountains that once existed in north-eastern parts of Europe and Russia. It was said to be between two to three feet in height or the size of a mountain lion. The Indian griffin had its range in the Middle East and North-Eastern India. It had more lion attributes than those of the eagle. It was held sacred to the sun and, although it could fly, was not adept at flying despite having wings. Nevertheless, they were formidable enough to defeat dragons and elephants.


Therapeutic Powers

The claws of a griffin were believed to have therapeutic or curative properties for health, and blindness could be cured by its feathers (1). In the courts of medieval Europe, goblets made from antelope horns were passed off as being made from the claws of griffins, and ostrich eggs were passed off as griffin eggs. Both were considered highly desirable objects (2). The claw was also believed to detect poison by changing colour and offered protection against illness.


Modern Times

Today, griffins appear on many coats of arms and shields in heraldry. Their image is used by many organisations, businesses, and associations in their iconography. Its image can still be seen carved or depicted on many different types of buildings, such as banks and museums, and remains a popular motif with many educational establishments.


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The Arthurian Realm: Morgan le Fay – Healer, Witch and the Woman Question.

Voyage of King Arthur and Morgan le Fay to the Isle of Avalon – Frank William Warwick Topham, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com on November 29, 2018, titled “British Legends: Morgan le Fay – Magical Healer or Renegade Witch?” written by zteve t evans, edited and revised 3rd May 2024 by zteve t evans, images may vary from original.

The Enigma of Morgan le Fay

In Arthurian tradition, the elusive sorceress Morgan le Fay becomes one of King Arthur’s most dangerous foes, breaking traditional family bonds and working to undermine and bring down the strict patriarchal system and chivalric order of the Arthurian world. The enigma of Morgan is that despite attempting to kill King Arthur and usurp his kingdom, she is the one who takes him into her care after being severely wounded by Mordred in the Battle of Camlann, bringing an end to his kingdom.   

This work draws from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Vita Merlini, Historia regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain), and Sir Thomas Mallory’s  Le Morte D’Arthur and is influenced by other texts. It examines how Morgan’s character changes from benevolent to malignant and swings back to benevolent after the disaster of Camlann. To do this, we look at her early life and how she used Arthur’s famous sword, Excalibur, against him and stole its scabbard and then discuss the disaster it would cause. Next comes a discussion on two important topics that had a considerable influence on medieval society: the Querelle des Femmes, or the Woman Question and witchcraft, and it concludes with her return to Avalon.

As Ruler of Avalon

Geoffrey of Monmouth introduces her into Arthurian literature in Vita Merlini as Morgen, presenting her as the leader of nine benevolent sisters who rule the island of Avalon. She is the most beautiful, the most knowledgeable, and the most powerful of the sisters.  In addition to being a skilled healer, she can fly or transport herself at will from place to place and has shape-shifting abilities. It is uncertain whether these “sisters” are family or members of a religious or mystical cult.

In the work of some later writers, Morgan becomes King Arthur’s step-sister or full elder sister, but her character undergoes a radical change. As Arthur’s elder sister, she breaks the traditional bond of love between brother and sister and the nurturing role so often associated with the elder sister towards their younger brother. Furthermore, instead of the wise and benevolent sorceress, she evolves into a malign, sexual predator hating her brother and his wife, Queen Guinevere. Forsaking her place at the centre of the Arthurian establishment, she moves to its periphery, becoming a renegade attacking the established order. She targets the Knights of the Round Table, especially Sir Lancelot, weaving dark spells and plots to trap them. Eventually, she becomes nothing less than an enemy of the state and arguably its most dangerous adversary until Mordred emerges to usurp the crown, resulting in the Battle of Camlann. 

Morgan’s Early Life

In Historia Regum Britanniae, Geoffrey of Monmouth makes Morgan the youngest daughter of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall and his wife Igraine.  When the King of the Britons, Uther Pendragon, first set eyes on Igraine, he became wildly infatuated with her. Unable to contain his lust, he attacked Cornwall to take Igraine for himself. 

Gorlois sent his wife to his safest stronghold, Tintagel, while he confronted Uther’s troops in battle. While the military confrontation took place, Merlin, using his skills of disguise, transformed Uther into the likeness of Gorlois to allow him access to Igraine at Tintagel. The guards, believing it was Gorlois, let him enter the stronghold, and Igraine, thinking he was her husband, lay with him, and that night, Arthur was conceived.  

While this was taking place, Gorlois was killed battling Uther’s army.  After satisfying his lust, Uther returned to his troops. On learning of the duke’s death he took Igraine to be his wife.  He married her eldest daughter, Morgause, to King Lot of Lothian and the next eldest, Elaine, to King Nentres of Garlot.  Morgan was the youngest, and he sent her to a nunnery. (2)

Morgan hated Uther because she knew what had happened the night her father died and deeply resented Arthur as the product of his lust.  At the nunnery, she was introduced to astrology, the dark arts of necromancy, and healing skills, which she became highly adept at. As her skill and knowledge grew, people began to call her Morgan le Fay in acknowledgement of her abilities.  Eventually, she joined Arthur’s court and became one of Queen Guinevere’s Ladies-in-Waiting. But that was not to last.     

Morgan and Guiomar

Morgan was a beautiful young woman. She was a good singer and musician, marvellously skilled with her hands, knowledgeable and well-spoken. For the most part, she was considerate and courteous, but when angered, she became vindictive, spiteful, and obstinate. She was alleged to be the lewdest and most lustful woman in Britain, taking many lovers. 

One day, Guinevere’s nephew, Guiomar, found her at work in a bedroom spinning golden thread, and the two fell in love at first sight. The lovers tried to keep their affair secret, but eventually, Guinevere found out and banished him from the court. This incident caused Morgan to develop a burning resentment towards her. It increased her animosity towards Arthur, which she had kept hidden. She left the court and further studied the arts of sorcery, greatly enhancing her magical abilities. 

Eventually, she returned to Camelot, and Arthur married her to King Urien of Rheged to create a strategic political alliance, deepening her resentment towards him. With Urien, she had a son named Owain and began secretly plotting the downfall of her husband and brother, King Arthur.

The Lady of the Lake and Excalibur

One of the most famous symbols of the Arthurian legend is Excalibur, the sword he obtained after breaking the sword he had pulled from a stone to become King. Needing a replacement, Merlin took him to the shores of a lake. From the shore, gazing towards the lake’s centre, he saw an arm holding a bright sword aloft out of the water. 

The moving serenely in a boat over the water the Lady of the Lake approached Arthur, and he asked if she would give him the sword in exchange for anything she desired. She told him to take the boat on the shore out to the arm, and he would be given the blade and a scabbard. When the time came, she would ask him to fulfil his part of the bargain. The boat took Arthur and Merlin across the lake to where the arm held the sword out of the water. Arthur followed her instructions and received the sword and scabbard. They returned to the shore, where he examined the sword exquisitely crafted with the finest workmanship.

“Which do you like best, the sword or the scabbard?” asked Merlin. “I prefer the sword!” replied Arthur. “Then you are a fool! The scabbard is worth ten of the sword, because while you wear it no matter how you are wounded you will not lose blood.  Always keep the scabbard safe by you at all times,” advised Merlin.

The Scabbard of Excalibur

Time passed, and during a battle, Arthur was wounded, and the wound produced no blood. Merlin reminded him that this was because of the scabbard of Excalibur and again warned him to keep it safe, reiterating that anyone who wore it would not lose blood if wounded.

At this time, Arthur still loved and trusted his sister, Morgan, even more than his wife, Guinevere. Therefore, he took the scabbard and Excalibur to her and asked her to keep both safe. However, Morgan secretly hated her brother and saw this as an opportunity to bring him down. Morgan created a fake sword holder and sword and gave the real sword and its enchanted holder to her lover Accolon for him kill King Arthur in a duel. She would then, with Accolon, take the throne. To make this happen, Morgan le Fay cast a complicated spell that transported them to a remote location where they could fight without interference from anyone in Camelot.

She sent Arthur the counterfeit Excalibur and its fake scabbard to use in the duel, while Accolon used the genuine items. In the following fight, Arthur was almost overwhelmed and bleeding from many wounds dealt by Accolon wielding Excalibur. In contrast, Accolon, despite receiving numerous blows from Arthur, remained unbloodied and uninjured. Weakened by blood loss, Arthur realised that his opponent was wielding the Excalibur and wearing the scabbard. 

As Accolon raised Excalibur to strike the death blow, the Lady of the Lake intervened, casting a spell that made him drop the sword. Arthur seized his chance, grabbed the blade, and, tearing the scabbard from Accolon, hurled it away. Now wielding Excalibur, Arthur defeated his opponent, badly wounding him and, without the protection of the genuine scabbard, causing blood to flow.

Morgan and Excalibur – Dora Curtis, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

With Accolon at his mercy, Arthur demanded an explanation of how he got Excalibur and its scabbard. Accolon told him of Morgan’s plot and how she hated and despised him. On hearing this, Arthur was genuinely emotionally hurt and shocked. He had entirely loved and trusted his elder sister and learning that she hated him hurt deeply. Nevertheless, for all that, Arthur would have spared Accolon, who died four days later from his wounds. As an act of compassion, Arthur sent his body to Morgan for her to mourn appropriately, but this further increased her hatred towards him.   Still weak from blood loss, Arthur decided to rest at a nearby nunnery to recuperate.

While Accolon and Arthur had been locked in mortal combat, Morgan at Camelot had been busy. As her husband, King Urien, lay sleeping, she had crept up to him wielding a knife intending his murder. Her son, Owain, arrived by chance in time to stop her from carrying out the fatal blow.  Owain would have killed his mother, but she claimed a sudden madness had afflicted her and believing her, he spared her life. 

The Theft of the Scabbard

Morgan had truly loved Accolon and was devastated by his death and the failure of her plot, and sought vengeance.  On receiving his body, she went to Guinevere, who at this stage was unaware of the fight between Arthur and Accolon, to request leave from the court, claiming she had received urgent news and needed to travel home to deal with it.  

Guinevere reluctantly gave consent, and at dawn the following day, Morgan left on horseback with a retinue of her knights.  After riding hard all day and night, they reached the Abbey where Arthur was recuperating.  She was met by the nuns, who took her to his room and offered to wake him. “Nay, let him be,” she said, “I will wake him later when he is rested.  Now, leave me with him!”  The nuns were terrified of Morgan and obeyed her without question.

Arthur was lying fast asleep on a bed in the room, and in his right hand, he tightly gripped Excalibur. Morgan thought about trying to steal the sword, but she knew if he should wake, he would surely kill her now. She decided she would not take the chance, and seeing the empty scabbard close by, she silently hid it under her cloak and quietly left him, riding off with her entourage following.

When Arthur awoke, he immediately discovered the scabbard was missing. Calling the nuns to him, he questioned them about what had happened while he slept. They told him about his sister’s visit and how she had ordered them out of the room, leaving her alone with him. On hearing this, Arthur ordered Sir Ontzlake to prepare their horses, and they set off after her.

Riding hard and fast, they eventually saw her and her knights in the distance. Looking back, Morgan saw it was Arthur and realised she could not escape. Despite having a company of knights, she knew they could not defeat Arthur and Sir Ontzlake. Nevertheless, she was determined he would not get the scabbard back. Riding to a nearby lake, she threw it far into the water, where the weight of the gold and jewels that embellished it quickly took it to the bottom.  

Looking to escape Arthur and followed by her knights, she galloped into a valley whose sides were littered with great stone blocks.  She turned herself and her knights into stone blocks with her magic arts. Just as she had done this, into the valley rode King Arthur and Sir Ontzlake, who looked around the valley but could only see blocks of stone.  Unable to find a trace of her, Arthur searched for the scabbard, hoping she had dropped it for them to find to end the chase.  Finding no trace, he returned to the Abbey.

As soon as he had gone, Morgan turned her knights and herself back into human form and rode back to her home country. Fearing her brother may seek revenge for her part in his attempted assassination and stealing the magical sword sheath, she strengthened her castles and town walls. For now, she was an enemy of the Arthurian state.

Arthur rode back to Camelot, where Queen Guinevere and the Knights of the Round Table warmly welcomed him home. They were outraged when they heard his story of the fight with Accolon, Morgan’s plot to take the crown, and how she had stolen the scabbard of Excalibur. They accused her of treason and demanded that she be burnt at the stake.

The Deadly Cloak

Despite the failure of her murderous plot, Morgan’s hatred for her brother had not diminished, and she came up with another plan to assassinate him. She sent one of her girl servants to Camelot, bearing him a most handsome cloak as a peace gift, begging his forgiveness. It was studded with precious gems and embroidered with threads of gold and silver, and Arthur was incredibly impressed. As he was about to try it on, the Lady of the Lake intervened, saying, “Sire, do not try the cloak yourself or let any of your knights try it until she who has brought this gift to you has worn it herself!”

“Perhaps you are right, I will follow your counsel,” he told her thoughtfully and called the girl to him. “Place this cloak over your shoulders that I may see how it looks worn,” he told her. “Sire, it is not my station to wear the clothes of a King!” she protested. “First, you must wear it before my knights try it on!” He spoke firmly, gesturing for the cloak to be draped over the girl’s shoulders. As soon as the cloak was placed upon her, it burst into flames, reducing her to ashes. Arthur was furious at the treachery of his sister. At the same time, he was hurt and bewildered that she had planned such an awful death for him.

Morgan’s Magic

morganlfay
Morgan Le Fay (cropped) – by Frederick Sandys – Public Domain

Having been thwarted in her plot and with the death of her lover, Morgan feared her brother’s vengeance. She removed herself to live in the margins of his kingdom in the forests and wild places, building her realm on the edge of Arthur’s. She delved deeper into the study of sorcery, mastering it to such an extent that she was revered as a goddess. At every opportunity, she sought to capture and imprison any of the Knights of the Round Table who came her way, especially Lancelot, whom she captured several times.  She had an unrequited love for him, but her overriding motive in capturing him was to hurt Guinevere and Arthur.

The Murals of Lancelot

During one period of confinement, Lancelot painted a mural depicting his life on the walls of his prison, which included his love affair with Guinevere. Years after he had been released, King Arthur and some of his knights came across Morgan’s castle. Arthur had heard nothing of Morgan for years and believed his sister to be dead. Seemingly forgetting and forgiving past wrongs, he was overjoyed to discover she was still alive and invited her to return to Camelot with him, but she told him, “Do not ask this of me, for I will never return to court. When I finally leave this place, I will go to the Isle of Avalon where the women live who know all the magic in the world,”   

Guiding him around her castle, she took great pains to show him the murals Lancelot had painted. As soon as he saw them, he finally realised Guinevere and Lancelot had been having a long love affair and was deeply upset. Morgan seized upon this, encouraging him to take vengeance on the betrayal of his trust by the two people closest to him.

The Importance of Excalibur’s Scabbard

Along with this betrayal, other events would eventually lead Arthur reluctantly to go to war with Lancelot, who would retreat to his castle in France with Guinevere. Arthur left Mordred as steward of his kingdom and went to war with Lancelot, but he was to betray him and usurp the crown. Arthur was forced to return for the final confrontation at the apocalyptic Battle of Camlann, where he killed Mordred but, bereft of the scabbard of Excalibur, was also mortally wounded.

If Morgan had not stolen and disposed of Excalibur’s original scabbard, Arthur would have been protected from harm had he worn it at Camlann. Thus, Morgan may have been indirectly responsible for the seriousness of his injury. Yet, it was she, despite her hatred, who took him or received him for healing in Avalon.

Querelle des Femmes, or the Woman Question

In much of Arthurian literature, the “Woman Question” and the witchcraft threat are presented through Morgan, mirroring the challenges and threats these topics were seen to pose to the established patriarchal order in medieval times. The “Querelle des Femmes” appeared during the 15th century as a literary debate discussing the role of women in medieval society and areas they were excluded from, including politics, religion, and other fields. There were arguments for and against greater female involvement. The debate began in France around Le Roman de la Rose, begun by Guillaume de Lorris, to be concluded by Jean de Meun, and spread around Europe, dividing the literary world. The thesis of the book centred on Meun’s misogynistic and stereotyped ideas on female status and those who challenged and rejected them.  In Morgan, these arguments are seen through her behaviour, the behaviour of other male and female characters, their roles in society and their relationships.

Witchcraft

The belief in magic goes back to the earliest times of humanity. Sorcery, enchantment, and other forms of magic are essential to the Arthurian world. They were also widely accepted as part of medieval life, coexisting with Christianity as it does in Arthurian texts. Eventually, it became unacceptable to the Christian Church as a severe threat, particularly from women, who too often unfairly suffered the consequences.

The Lady of the Lake saves Arthur from Morgan’s plots to kill him. She is seen in social terms as the model female upholding and defending the patriarchal order. At the same time, Morgan is the wayward lady, the renegade, who does not behave as she should, deliberately seeking to undermine patriarchy. Unable to fight directly in combat because of her gender, she uses the chivalric order to attack the strictly patriarchal Arthurian state.  She used Accolon to battle with Arthur, turning the chivalric rules against him, and even his sword, Excalibur, was used against him. 

She is not a passive participant in events like Guinevere, who gets abducted several times. Instead, Morgan is an active agent, and she abducts Arthur’s knights. An independent, strong-willed, active, intelligent woman armed with sorcery is seen as a danger to patriarchy and medieval society. To counter this, she is given a reputation of sexual predation and treachery to the family – the cornerstone of medieval culture and her magic becomes witchcraft. Her role is presented to the reader as an example of everything a high-status woman in medieval society should not be, hence the need to alienate her. This staining of her character is the consequence of her magic, independence, and intelligence. 

Return to Avalon

After the Battle of Camlann, Morgan had Arthur completely helpless, in her power and at her mercy. Yet her character now appears to have gone full circle. With him at her mercy, instead of killing him, she becomes the loving sister and the benevolent sorceress, taking up the traditional passive, healing, nurturing role often associated with good women in medieval society. Despite the fall of the renowned Arthurian order, patriarchy is not dead, and there seems to be no place in what remains for her. She foretells she will be found on,

“… the Isle of Avalon where the women live who know all the magic in the world.”

Like Morgan le Fay, Arthurian tales can be intriguing, healing, dangerous, appealing, tricksy, and open to interpretation. Through their sorcery using the power of words, the reader creates their own magical, meaningful experience. The Arthurian realm remains popular for creative, imaginative readers to explore and discover engaging and intriguing characters like Morgan le Fay, roaming amidst a magical and fantastical landscape that is very much a creation of the reader as the writer.

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References, Attributions and Further Reading

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