The Christmas tree is more than a much-loved and glittering centrepiece of festive decorations and celebrations. In the home, it is a unifying symbol the family can gather around, strengthening familial ties and a place of fun and cheer. When placed in the local community it becomes a rallying point for people to sing carols, meet, and strengthen social bonds. However, its exact origin is debated, and there are different ideas of how its importance to the festival evolved. Presented here is a retelling of how Saint Boniface introduced the fir tree into traditions and celebrations of the birth of Jesus. This tells how Saint Boniface cut down a sacred oak tree that was a prominent place of pagan worship in a place now called Hesse in Germany. Saint Boniface, also known as Winfrid or Winfred, was born c. 675 in Wessex, England and died June 5, 754, in Dokkum, Frisia, now part of the Neverlands. He was an English Benedictine monk working to establish Christianity in Germany and the Frankish empire. At that time, in that place, people worshipped pagan gods under a sacred tree growing singularly or in groves. The tree in this legend was called the Thunder Oak and is sometimes known as the Donar Oak, Jove’s Oak, the Oak of Jupiter, and other similar terms in other myths and legends.
Legend Of The Thunder Oak
The story begins in a time long before the establishment of Christianity in the Germanic lands where a massive oak grew. It was a true giant of trees so tall its topmost branches were hidden by clouds. Its ancient body was broad and twisted from which a profusion of long, gnarled, stretching limbs spread, creating a vast overarching canopy of darkness centre around the tree. To the people of these lands, the great tree was sacred and venerated as the Thunder Oak of their great god Thor and one of the most important shrines of his cult. Yet, under the darkness of its great canopy, human victims died under the bloodied knife of the priests of Thor, their blood soaking into the ground to feed the ravenous roots of the ancient oak.
Even in the dead of winter, bare of leaves and acorns, the space under its vast spreading branches, clumped with mistletoe, was a place of continuous and gloomy darkness. In this dread place, an atmosphere of quiet but overwhelming fear pervaded under the great smothering branches. Animals avoided the tree, making wide detours around it, while birds would not fly near or over it or perch in its branches. Even the buzzing flies and creeping insects kept well out of the dread darkness under its canopy.
And it came to pass, one cold, white Christmas Eve, as Christians were preparing to celebrate the birth of Christ, the priests of Thor gathered under their sacred tree. They had not come to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ or Christmas. Instead, they had come to pay homage to their god of war and thunder and witness the human sacrifice whose blood would nourish and strengthen the great tree and feed its darkness. They were joined by a great throng of their people to worship their own god, as was their tradition at this time of year.
Over the great tree rose a bright moon. The high priest chanted and made magical signs over the altar while the victim lay shivering in the cold, awaiting the stab of pain from the deadly knife that would end their life. As the high priest spread his arms out towards the Thunder Oak, his eyes adoring the sacred tree, his hand raised to strike, the air became still, all sound in the forest stopped, and silence fell. The bright moon rose to its zenith, sending her rays to find and illuminate the helpless man spread-eagled on the altar slab awaiting the stab of pain that would end their life. It never came. Instead, something extraordinary happened. As the pure rays of the brilliant moon lit the altar, the forest’s silence was broken. From the depths of the woods came the sound of Christian hymns sung by a throng of people growing louder as they drew nearer. They were led by Saint Boniface, who had come to bring Christianity and establish the church of Jesus Christ.
As the illuminating moon banished the darkness under the great Thunder Tree of Thor, Saint Boniface strode forward, wielding a shining axe. The High Priest, dagger in his hands, his raised arms poised to strike, froze. His followers parted to allow the saint to march directly up to the Thunder Oak unchallenged. Then, gathering his strength in his arms, he struck a blow that caused a great gash in the tree’s trunk with his axe. The shocked High Priest and his followers looked on in fear as he struck the oak repeatedly, causing an ever-widening gash in the its body.
Suddenly, a mighty wind swept over the forest roof, hitting the great oak with force. With an awful groan, the tree toppled backwards, crashing into the ground with such force it caused its great trunk to split into four equal portions. Behind the wreckage of the oak, a young fir tree stood, its green spire pointing the way to heaven. Dropping his axe and turning to his people, the saint pointed at the young verdant tree and joyfully cried,
“See there, the young scion of the forest, the tree of peace! See how it is shaped like a church steeple pointing to heaven. We build our houses from it to shelter us; its foliage remains evergreen. Let this tree be known as the tree of the Christ child. Let us bring it into our homes where it will encourage our loving deeds and acts of kindness and bring the peace of Jesus Christ into our hearts as we shun the wildness of the wood!”
In obedience to the saint, they took the sapling fir into their great communal meeting hall where all could see it. They abandoned the cult of Thor and the Thunder Oak and practised Christianity, and every year celebrated Christmas and the birth of Jesus Christ with a young evergreen fir tree at the centre of their home, family, and community.
The 1st of May is also known as May Day, Beltane or in Wales Calan Mai or Calan Haf. In Welsh mythology and Arthurian literature it is often linked to the beginning of an adventure or the unfolding of significant events. More sinisterly, it is also linked with the abduction of a female by a male suitor, a recurring theme in Welsh mythology and Arthurian literature. Presented here is a brief discussion on the abduction of Creiddylad and the battle by two warring suitors for possession of her, which takes place every May Day until Doomsday, when there must be a final victor.
Gwyn ap Nudd
In Welsh mythology Gwyn ap Nudd was a ruler of Annwn and the Tylwyth Teg and also associated with Glastonbury Tor. His name means “white son of Nudd,” though he is often described as having a blackened face. His father was Ludd, who was also known as Lludd of the Silver Hand and he may have had a sister, or step-sister named Creiddylad, but the relationship, if any, is not clear. He accompanied King Arthur in the story of Culhwch ac Olwen.
Creiddylad
Creiddylad briefly appears in the tale of Culhwch ac Olwen. She has been likened to Persephone, the Greek vegetation goddess associated with spring and fertility who had been abducted by Hades, the king of the underworld. Her mother, Demeter searched for her neglecting her duties and causing the earth to stop growing. She is eventually found and after the intervention of Zeus is compelled repeatedly to spend half the year in Hades and the other on Earth, representing winter and summer respectively.
Creiddylad was considered the most beautiful maiden in the island of Britain. She had two suitors; Gwyn ap Nudd and Gwythyr ap Greidawl. Some scholars regard Creiddylad as the prototype for the legendary Queen Cordeilla of the Britons in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s pseudo-historical, The History of the Kings of Britain. Later William Shakespear’s character Cordelia from his play King Lear was thought to have been inspired by Geoffrey’s version though not everyone accepts this view.
Gwythyr ap Greidawl
Gwythyr ap Greidawl was the son of Greidawl Galldonyd, one of King Arthur’s knights. Gwythyr was also one of Arthur’s knights and a member of his retinue along with Gwyn in the tale of Culhwch ac Olwen.
The Abduction and Conflict
Creiddylad and Gwyther were betrothed but before they were married Gwyn ap Nudd forcefully abducted her. Gwythyr raised an army to confront Gwyn and win back his betrothed. In the ensuing battle Gwyn is victorious taking a number of important prisoners. These included Dyfnarth his son, Glinneu son of Taran, Gwrgwst Ledlwm, Graid son of Eri, Pen son Nethog, Nwython and his son Cyledyr. In an act of sheer cruelty the Gwyn made Cyledyr eat the heart of his father which drove him mad. From then on the epitaph Wyllt meaning madness was added after his name with him becoming Cyledyr Wyllt.
On hearing of the hostilities, King Arthur intervened setting the prisoners free and making a peace agreement between the two. This stipulated that Gwyn and Gwythyr would fight for Creiddylad every year on the 1st of May until Doomsday. Whoever won the fight on Doomsday would win Creiddylad for his bride. Through all this time she would remain unmarried living with her father until the contest had been settled.
Creiddylad as a Goddess
There is an idea that Creiddylad may represent a fertility goddess and the battle between the two rivals is to choose the strongest and most virile to be her husband to ensure the fertility of the earth.Caitlin Mathews in her book, King Arthur and the Goddess of the Land – The Divine Feminine in the Mabinogion, explains how certain female characters in the Mabinogion may be seen as representing a Goddess of Sovereignty. The possession of such a female by a male gives the possessor sovereignty over the land. Some times she is called the Flower Bride and considered the spirit of new growth, renewal and fertility.
With both ideas possession is one thing and keeping her is another. In both roles her task is to ensure the fertility of the land. Therefore, he who would be king must be the strongest and most virile. He must also be the steward of the land taking care of it and its inhabitants in return for sovereignty over it. There is an idea that the well being of the land is intimately tied up with the well being of the king. Should the king weaken and fail so will the land. There will never be a shortage of suitors for the goddess or Flower Bride and inevitably she must choose the strongest and the most potent for her consort to ensure the fertility, renewal and well being of the land she bestows. This may look immoral to a patriarchal society but it is her sacred duty to protect and ensure the continuance of life on the land and her morality cannot be judged in such terms.
Birth, Death and Renewal
These abduction stories are also often linked to birth, death and renewal of life and crops and nature. They may also be connected with the battle of light and dark and the cyclical changing of the seasons but not all scholars accept these ideas. In Arthurian literature there are several similar examples involving the abductions of Queen Guinevere and other ritualistic duels between two warring males that may also be seen in this light.
These words by Thomas Babbington Macaulay succinctly sum up the deadly duel of life and death to decide the Rex Nemorensis, the legendary High Priest of Diana Nemorensis of the Sacred Grove of Lake Nemi. The Rex Nemorensis was a shadowy figure in ancient Greek and Roman myth and legend. Most versions of his story agree that he earned his title and role by winning a fight to the death to become the “ghastly priest” of the above verse. Here we shall briefly discuss the mythical goddess of the Sacred Grove, Diana Nemorensis, followed by a look at her high priest and his deadly duel, followed by a look at the possible origins of the cult. Finally, there will be a brief discussion centered on “The Golden Bough,” a work by Sir James George Frazer inspired by the legendary Rex Nemorensis.
Diana’s Mirror
Diana Nemorensis was an important goddess in ancient times whose sanctuary and temple were situated on the northern shore of Lake Nemi. The lake has been referred to as “speculum Dianae” which means “Diana’s Mirror”. The important Roman festival of Nemoralia was held on the site.
There were also other lesser deities associated with her and the Sacred Grove. These were Egeria, who was the spirit of a nearby stream who also shared with Diana the protection of childbirth. The other was Virbius, the Roman counterpart of the Greek Hippolytus. A third goddess possibly worshiped at the Sacred Grove was Vesta. She was believed to have eventually become conflated with the goddess Artemis.
The Rex Nemorensis
According to legend, the cult of Diana Nemorensis was recognized as one of the most ruthless, brutal and mysterious cults of ancient Rome. The high priest who was said to have presided over her rituals was known as the ‘King of the Sacred Grove’ or the ‘King of the Wood,’ or more famously the ‘Rex Nemorensis.’ According to some traditions the cult was populated by fugitives or runaway slaves who had dedicated themselves to the worship of Diana. However, there is little evidence to support this, though the role of the Rex is linked to such outsiders.
Tradition says growing inside the grove was a huge oak tree. It was strictly forbidden for anyone to break a branch off this special tree and it was guarded to prevent this. The only exception to this rule were runaway slaves or fugitives. If one succeeded they were rewarded with the right to challenge the incumbent high-priest to a duel to the death. If the incumbent killed his challenger he remained in his post and lived. If his challenger killed the incumbent he became “the ghastly priest who slew the slayer” – the new Rex Nemorensis – High Priest of Diana, King of the Grove, King of the Wood and Guardian of the Sacred Grove, but it came with a high price.
Having fought for and won the post he had to remain on his guard for the rest of his life. Should a runaway slave, or fugitive, make it to the oak and break a branch off then that slave then earned the right to fight him for his titles and his life as he had done his predecessor. The victor would become the Rex Nemorensis, until he too was defeated, with his conqueror taking his place. There could only ever be only one Rex Nemorensis.
This murderous cycle ensured that that incumbent high-priest was always kept at the pinnacle of his powers. As the Rex Nemorensis he was the embodiment of fertility of nature and the woods. As such he could not succumb to either illness or old age. Death had to be violent because the spilling of blood on the ground was seen as necessary to bring fertility to the earth. Despite the certainty of meeting a violent death it did at least offer sanctuary, albeit temporarily, to any such fugitive.
The Cult of Diana Nemorensis
The cult of Diana Nemorensis was very ancient and its beginnings are shrouded in myth and legend. Many scholars think that it had its roots in ancient Greece. There are two Greek traditions of how the cult originated. One traces its origins through the story of Orestes and Iphegenia, while the other is based on the tradition of Hippolytus.
Lake Nemi by John Robert Cozens – Public domain
Orestes and Iphegenia
The first account tells how Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, a king of Mycenae and his wife Clytemnestra, brought the cult of Diana Nemoresis to Italy. On discovering his mother’s affair with Aeegistus, Orestes murders him to avenge his father who is on his way to fight the Trojans. Orestes was told by the god Apollo to go to Tauris to purify himself as an act of atonement. In Tauris, Artemis was a revered goddess and it was the custom for any foreigners landing upon the shores to be brought to her temple to be ritually sacrificed before her effigy by the high priestess.
On his arrival Orestes was taken before the High Priestess of Artemis to be prepared for sacrifice. Fortunately for him she was his long lost sister who he believed had been sacrificed by their father. She had been saved from this fate by the goddess Artemis and transported to Tauris where she was set in place as the high priestess of her cult. Recognizing Orestes, Iphegenia could not kill her brother and by deceiving Thoas, the King of Tauris, they both escaped by ship taking with them the effigy of Artemis. They sailed around the coastline finding their way to the south of Italy, finally making their way to Nemi and settling there.
With the theft of the effigy of Artemis and their escape from Tauris, Orestes and Iphegenia had placed themselves outside of society and the laws as they stood and were effectively fugitives. Once they became established at Lake Nemi, the cult grew in popularity and strength. Unlucky foreigners who landed on the shores were brought inland to Nemi for sacrifice. Eventually the tradition evolved so that runaway slaves and fugitives could claim the right to fight the incumbent high priest and claim his position.
The Story of Hippolytus
Death of Hippolytus – Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Public domain
The second version of the origin of the Rex Nemorensis tells how Hyppolytus, the son of Theseus, became the first Rex Nemorensis. His step-mother was Phaedra who made sexual advances towards him which he rejected. To gain revenge she accused him of raping her. He was cursed and banished by his outraged father and was dragged to death by his chariot’s horses after they had been frightened by a sea monster sent by Poseidon. Ascelapius, the god of medicine, with help from the goddess Artemis returned him to life as an old man named Virbio (Vir bis is Latin for man for the second time) to prevent him being recognized. He was taken to Lake Nemi where he was installed as high priest of the cult of Diana, becoming known as Virbius. Pausanius in his “Description of Greece,” says,
“The Aricians tell a tale … that when Hippolytus (the son of Theseus) was killed, owing to the curses of Theseus, Asclepius raised him from the dead. On coming to life again he refused to forgive his father; rejecting his prayers, he went to the Aricians in Italy. There he became king and devoted a precinct to Artemis, where down to my time the prize for the victor in single combat was the priesthood of the goddess. The contest was open to no freeman, but only to slaves who had run away from their masters.” (2)
The Golden Bough
The legend was the inspiration for The Golden Bough, a comparative work of religion and mythology by Sir James George Frazer first published in 1890. Although the book was influential in its time many of the ideas he proposed are not accepted by many modern scholars. He appears to have expected this saying,
“Books like mine, merely speculation, will be superseded sooner or later (the sooner the better for the sake of truth) by better induction based on fuller knowledge.” (3)
Maybe he saw his role as starting the conversation for others to continue. Many of his contemporaries appeared rather disappointed with his success and popularity though his ideas were very controversial. Fraser appeared to favor Virbius as the origin of the legend of the Rex Nemorensis,
“In his character of the founder of the sacred grove and first king of Nemi, Virbius is clearly the mythical predecessor or archetype of the line of priests who served Diana under the title of Kings of the Wood, and who came, like him, one after the other, to a violent end. It is natural, therefore, to conjecture that they stood to the goddess of the grove in the same relation in which Virbius stood to her; in short, that the mortal King of the Wood had for his queen the woodland Diana herself.” (4)
Whether the legendary Rex Nemorensis was a real historical figure is difficult to say and many think not. Nevertheless, he still cuts a dramatic figure lurking in the darkness of the sacred groves at the back of our minds.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com on 19th December 2019, titled, Top 5 Winter Solstice Celebrations Around the World ,by zteve t evans and was edited and revised 14 March 2024 by zteve t evans.
The Winter Solstice
The celebration of the winter solstice is a centuries-old tradition still practised worldwide in various forms. Individual human cultures often mixed magic with religion to acknowledge and celebrate this momentous astronomical event. Here, we briefly look at five of these festivities from around the globe before discussing why they were so crucial to our ancestors and concluding with what science has to say today.
Winter Solstice at Stonehenge
Sunrise between the stones at Stonehenge on the Winter Solstice in the mid 1980s – Mark Grant, CC BY 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons
One of the most famous celebrations today is held at Stonehenge in England, where many people gather from far and wide to participate. In addition to celebrating the return of the Sun and the rebirth of vegetation, many people feel they are connecting with their ancestors and participating in an astronomical event that has existed for time immemorial. This occasion attracts many different groups of pagans, Wicca followers, Druids, Christians, and non-religious people to gather together and express their gratitude to the natural forces of the universe.
Yalda Night
Fruits used in yalda by Mohammadmosalman, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
For many Iranians and people living in central Asia, “Yalda Night” is when family and friends come together to eat and drink. They stay awake all night and traditionally eat nuts, watermelons and pomegranates. Eating watermelons on Yalda night is believed to be especially beneficial for health and well-being and in warding off disease. For entertainment, the poems of Divan-e Hafez and other poetry are read. There is a belief in the Khorasan region that eating pomegranates, carrots, and green olives protects against scorpion stings and the bites of insects while eating garlic on Yalda night protects against joint pain. In some parts of Iran, it is customary for a young, engaged man to send presents and a gift of an arrangement of seven kinds of edible fruit to his fiancé. In some areas, the girl and her family send gifts in return to her young man.
Yule and the Feast of Juul
Before the arrival of Christianity, Yule, or the Feast of Juul, was a festival lasting twelve days in celebration of the rebirth of the Sun. In its early days, Germanic people celebrated it during the Winter Solstice by lighting fires that symbolised the Sun. Many present-day traditions originate from Yule, such as the Yule log, which was carefully chosen and taken into the home with great reverence. The broadest end was placed in the fire hearth, with the rest protruding into the room. Tradition dictated the log must be lit by someone with clean hands using the carefully preserved remains of the previous year’s log. As the new log burnt, it was slowly pushed into the fire over the Twelve Days of Christmas. Anything that remained would be carefully kept to kindle the following year’s Yule log. The ashes were scattered across fields as fertiliser; some may have been retained as a charm or medicinal use. Yule is still celebrated in various ways by different groups of modern pagans.
The Dongzhi Festival
In China and parts of East Asia, the Dongzhi Festival joins the astronomical event of the Winter Solstice, which rebalances the energies of yin and yang in nature. The yin qualities of cold, dark days are gradually replaced by warmer, lighter days of yang energy. It is not the start of winter but marks the extreme point of winter. It originated in the Chinese Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), and its traditions and customs varied from region to region. People visited each other, sharing specially prepared food, and prayed at the tombs of their ancestors and relatives.
It was a cold time of the year, so warming foods were prepared and shared, which varied from area to area. People in northern parts of China cooked wonton, mutton and dumplings. In parts of southern China, people enjoy noodles and tangyuan as a festive treat. Tangyuan is a dish of glutinous rice balls, sometimes made in bright colours and served in a sweet or savoury syrup or soup. Eating tangyuan is a family activity for many Chinese people in China and worldwide. The round dishes and rice balls symbolise the unity and togetherness of the family circle.
Inti Raymi of Peru
The Inti Rayma is a Winter Solstice festival celebrated in Peru in June instead of December. The solstices are reversed in the Southern Hemisphere to those of the North. It was initially an Inca celebration with sacrifices of animals and possibly children honouring the Sun God, but the Spanish conquerors banned it. In the Inca religion, the Sun God was the most revered of their gods. In the Quechuan language, Inti means “Sun,” and Raymi means “celebration”, so Inti Raymi is the celebration of the Sun God. In Inca tradition, Inti Raymi was created by Pachatutec, the first Inca to celebrate the winter solstice, the first day of their New Year in the Inca calendar.
Although the winter solstice begins around the 21 June, the Incas believed it stayed in the same place, finally rising on the 24 June. Because of this, the Inti Raymi will occur in the exact location in Cusco on 24 June. The leading participant in the ceremony was the Sapa Inca, who ruled the kingdom of Cusco and later the Inca Empire. The nobility and the Inca army joined him in the festival. The participants had to go through three days of purification. During this period, they fasted and were only allowed to eat white maise and certain herbs. The participants painted their faces yellow and wore deer heads, and throughout the rituals, there was dance and music.
On 24 June, the Sapa Inca took to a stage to drink a maise-based beverage called chicha de jora to publicly honour the Sun God. In the Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun, the Sapa Inca sat with mummies of his dead ancestors before kindling a fire using a concave mirror to reflect the rays of the Sun. With the ceremony over, the Sapa Inca returned to his palace. The Inti Rayma was revived in the 20th century without the sacrifices and is celebrated today.
What is the Winter Solstice?
The winter solstice is a twice-yearly astronomical event of great significance for the dwellers of planet Earth. The word “solstice” is derived from Latin meaning “sun stands still” because the Sun appears to pause before reversing its direction (1). When the winter solstice occurs in the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice occurs in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa.
The Importance of the Winter Solstice
The ancients observed that the days became progressively shorter and cooler after the summer solstice. Around the time of the autumn equinox, vegetation turned brown and died as daylight diminished while darkness increased until the winter solstice. The December Solstice marks the beginning of astronomical winter, and the days gradually become longer and brighter (3). Conversely, the next three months are generally the coldest of the year because the earth and water have cooled. The returning Sun gradually reheats the earth and water, bringing warmer weather and more light, stimulating plants to renew their leaves. Herbivorous animals depend on plants for food, and plant renewal is essential for maintaining the food chain that humans rely upon. The regularity of the winter solstice helped the ancients plan necessary tasks throughout the year, such as sowing crops, breeding animals, preparing and storing food and provisions, brewing wine and beer and many other tasks to give them the best chance of surviving the cold, hard days after the solstice.
Science and the Sun
Earth – Image by NOAA Satellites, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Our ancestors lacked modern technology and scientific knowledge. They knew nothing of how the warming and cooling of the oceans affect weather patterns around the world or of photosynthesis and how plants renewed their leaves, but they did know some things. According to NASA, probably the foremost scientific organisation on the planet,
“Nothing is more important to us on earth than the Sun. Without the Sun’s heat and light, the earth would be a lifeless ball of ice-coated rock. The Sun warms our seas, stirs our atmosphere, generates our weather patterns, and gives energy to the growing green plants that provide the food and oxygen for life on earth.” (4)
The ancients knew the Sun’s importance to the earth and consequently to their lives and knew it without modern science. In modern times, the winter solstice is a time for us to thank our ancestors and their ancient wisdom and, of course, the Sun and the Earth for sustaining us.
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com as London Folklore: The Legendary Frost Fairs of the River Thames by zteve t evans on December 27, 2018, and has been revised and edited with images added 4 March 2024 by zteve t evans.
Thames Frost Fairs
The historic Frosts Fairs held on the River Thames in London are depicted in several works of art that show how cold, icy, and severe the weather became during those events compared to the weather experienced in the capital in modern times. The idea of a Frost Fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem like a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favorite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames Frost Fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode, the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames Frost Fairs are featured in two tracks on “Snow on Snow” by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainment and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal. Nevertheless, it has happened several times in the past. Here, we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners, what they did, and how they coped in those frigid times.
The Little Ice Age
The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many large and small businesses flourish around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats crewed by watermen, who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked, and died around the river, and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which still exist today. With the great river’s importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly stopped flowing and froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it?
A series of sudden exceptionally cold periods of extreme wintery weather have caused this to happen several times. Although such a notion may seem nothing but legend and folklore, it is a historical fact that the River Thames has frozen several times, hard enough for usual daily commerce to be temporarily impossible. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the Little Ice Age that lasted from 1300 to 1870. Expert opinion varies on this and the causes and is not dealt with here. It was also known to have frozen over in even earlier times. During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the center of London on the Thames ice. In 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river.
The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750, and during the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. However, when it did freeze over, it brought the river and much of the city’s daily business to an abrupt halt. Nevertheless, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, changed what they did to suit the weather. In its frozen state, the river became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension of the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun and Londoners like to have fun.
In 1608, the first recorded London Frost Fair occurred on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December 1607, the ice was thick enough for people to walk from Southwark to the city. By January 1608, the ice was thick and solid enough for a host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up, selling many diverse kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking.
The Frozen Thames 1677 – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Among them, skittles, bowling, and many other sports and activities took place for people to enjoy and participate in. Another popular game was “folk” football, unlike modern football, where two teams compete, and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with few rules which often became chaotic, unrestrained, riotous events.
The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84
The diarist, writer and Fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on-the-spot, eye-witness account of the event often called the Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84. On January 6, 1684, in his diary, he wrote,
“The frost continues more and more severe; the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this hum our took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc.
Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple and from several other stairs to and from, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in. (1)
Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One name, Croom, had the idea of cashing in on the event’s novelty by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name and the date and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular, and Croon was said to make five pounds daily. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. This impromptu frost fair began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment.
The sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired many enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the severe weather while making money and having fun at the same time. Despite the cold, young and old folk flocked to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the various activities and events that suddenly sprang up.
From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684, we learn that hackney carriages and horse-drawn carts used the frozen river as a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments and booths that sold hot coffee and food,
Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack, Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack. In this same street before the Temple was made, There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade:
There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe, And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox; Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise, The like before we’re seen beneath the Skies; (2)
Events such as blood sports and folk football took place, and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more people flocked onto the frozen Thames, there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example,
Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign, As seldom hath been seen in former time; The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same, The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name: (3)
With its increasing popularity, there was more money to be made, and even more diverse trades set up shop on the ice. As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment, it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold, and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. Not everyone approved of what was happening on the Thames ice. For some people, the drunkenness and debauchery among the revelers and the shady dealings of many river traders caused concern that it was bringing out the worst in people.
The Frost Fair of 1715-16
Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when heavy snowfalls blanketed the city, and it was so cold that the Thames froze for almost three months. Once again, London entrepreneurs took to the ice, erecting booths, tents, and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked onto the frozen river to have fun. On January 19, two oxen were roasted over fires upon the ice. The activities on the frozen river drew people away from the theatres, and the Prince of Wales visited the Frost Fair.
Once again, entrepreneurial printers set stalls on the ice, publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers, and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawks’ Newsletter, and on January 14, the news was,
“The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4)
Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts, and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with an enthusiastic sermon.
The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormally high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revelers out of their stride. On February 15, the ice began to thaw and split, ending the party.
The Great Frost of 1739-40
The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames Frost Fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year before finally beginning to slowly thaw on February 17 and becoming known as The Great Frost. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The less impoverished and working-class citizens struggled to find food, fuel, and water. With the weather so bad, many traders, such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers, and many other trades, could not operate. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city, who granted some relief to the suffering people.
A few days after the arrival of the Great Frost, a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary, causing considerable damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river to create an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice and icebergs protruding through the icy white surface.
When the weather settled, another Frost Fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames, selling all sorts of goods and services. Again, the printers were there, and there were the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a wide variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties that the severe weather brought. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up.
The Frost Fair of 1767-68
At the end of December 1767, a severe frost began and strengthened until January 16, causing the River Thames to freeze again. Ships, boats, and river vessels became trapped in the ice, and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flowing with the tides. During this period, many lives were lost, and the price of meat and food increased so much that impoverished people could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies for bringing fish to the Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. Nevertheless, the less well-off citizens suffered great hardship in London and the surrounding countryside, where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel, and food became scarce and expensive because they could not be transported, and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city, amounting to £50,000, a considerable sum of money in those days.
The Frost Fair of 1788-89
A severe frost began on November 25, 1788, and lasted seven weeks. On January 5, the Thames froze over, as before, a fair and market with puppet shows, drinking and eating booths, and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice.
The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on January 10, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. The clerk of the cellars paid them four guineas, but when His Highness heard of their feat, he ordered them to be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On January 13, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 to relieve the impoverished during the severe weather.
On Saturday, January 17, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his boat to his premises, which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast. At the same time, a cable was attached to a structural beam of the building. In the night, the weather and currents took hold of the ship, causing the publican’s structure to be destroyed and five people killed. (5)
The magazine also reports that in February 1789, entertainment and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames with all manner of entertainment. All kinds of food and drinks were sold with fires roasting oxen, sheep, and pigs. Once again, the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, yet, despite the merriment, the poorer citizens suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money, and the City of London raised 1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6)
The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames began on February 1, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous Frost Fairs, an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed, and published a 124-page book titled Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again, stalls and booths sprang up, selling a vast array of goods, wares, and services. The watermen, unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread.
While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were readily available, gin, beer and wine were more popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents, “temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice, including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry onto the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. Often, the same families whose ancestors had provided these services for previous Frost Fairs were the providers this time. The atmosphere was raucous, with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There were no policemen in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. As previously mentioned, one of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, creating an extraordinary scene.
Problems and Hardship
Frost Fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolic; they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us,
“The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7)
When the ice started to melt and break up, it became treacherous, causing death to people and animals, damage to property, and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people in the countryside, other parts of the UK, and Europe.
Future Frost Fairs
The Old London Bridge (1176-1825) was one of the most iconic images of London and partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower, broader, and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow unimpeded. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London, with the same intensity as in the past.
Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete, and heated buildings, which helps keep London warmer in winter than areas outside the capital. Conversely, in the summer, it can make it uncomfortably warmer. That being said, no one knows what the future will bring with global warming, and there may be a few surprises.
London Folklore
The Thames Frost Fairs became a part of the rich bank of London folklore. Works of art and literature of the time give future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these rare unique events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The Frost Fairs were a testament to the endurance and enterprising spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what must have been tough times for many people.
As time passed, legends emerged from historical events as facts became exaggerated and embellished, enhancing their novelty for later generations whose curiosity is aroused by the differences between what they experience in the present and what happened in the past.
The sea and the rugged Cornish coastline dotted with fishing villages and harbors is a fertile breeding ground of many legends and traditions. For many of the Cornish folk living around the coast, the sea provided them with a means to make a living by fishing. As well as selling their catch for small profits it was the basic ingredient of their diet. To catch the fish they needed suitable weather so their livelihoods were inextricably linked to the sea and the weather.
Georges Jean-Marie Haquette (1854 – 1906) – Public Domain
Stormy Weather
Tom Bawcock was a legendary fisherman in the 16th century who lived in the Cornish fishing village of Mousehole. Like many other local people, he made his living from fishing the seas around Cornwall. According to legend during one wintertime the area was afflicted by a series of storms and bad weather which prevented the local fishermen from putting out to sea. This is said to have happened around Christmas time and the fishing boats remained stationary in the harbor. This bad weather continued over a prolonged period and the local people could not catch the fish that consisted of their main diet and began to starve.
Brave Tom Bawcock
According to local folklore this state of affairs continued for some time and by the 23rd of December with the village people in dire straights, one man decided something had to be done. Tom Bawcock decided he would chance the weather and take his boat out to try and make a catch. Bravely he took his fishing boat out in the most appalling of weather and horrendous seas but good fortune was with him. He managed to drop his nets and haul in a huge catch of fish. When he returned he found he had several different kinds of fish all mixed together.
These were all placed together in one big pie with egg and potatoes providing enough to feed the entire village. They called the dish stargazy pie. In this dish, some of the fish heads are deliberately placed to poke through the pastry as if looking at the stars and the tails protrude as well so that it looks like the fish are leaping in and out as they would in water. Placing them this way is also said to let the fish oils run back into the pie improving the taste and nutritional value.
Tom Bawcock’s Eve
Naturally, the villagers were delighted and Tom became their hero. A festival has been held on 23rd December which became known as Tom Bawcock’s Eve ever since in the village of Mousehole. During the evening of the 23rd, a huge stargazy pie is the centerpiece of a parade through Mousehole accompanied by villagers carrying lanterns and the pie is then eaten. But even the Cornish weather can affect this and sometimes the lantern parade is postponed if the weather is particularly bad.
The lantern parade for Tom Bawcock’s Eve – Public Domain
There was once an older festival held in the village during the end of December which also featured a fish pie made with several varieties of seafood and it may be that Tom Bawcock’s Eve has evolved from that. Over the years the festival has grown and since 1963 the famous Christmas festive illuminations of Mousehole are included adding extra color and sparkle.
The origin of Tom Bawcock
There are alternative theories as to how the festival originated. One proposed by a nautical archaeologist, Robert Morton Nance (1873–1959) an authority in his time on the Cornish language and one of the founders of the Old Cornish Society put forward the idea that the name Bowcock was derived from the French Beau Coq. He thought the festival was from an era that pre-dated Christianity and thought the cock in pagan times was the bringer of light or the sun in the morning with its crowing.
Another explanation is that the name Bawcock in Middle English is a nickname for someone who is regarded as a good fellow and Tom a generic name used to describe any man. So Tom Bawcock would mean any good fellow and perhaps, in this case, any good fellow, who was brave enough to risk his life to feed the village. It could have been a kind of Harvest Festival celebration in honor of any or all of the village’s brave fishermen if read like this.
The Devil in a Pie!
There is a tradition that the Devil never went to Cornwall. According to Robert Hunt, after the Old Nick crossed the River Tamar he noticed the Cornish people liked to put everything in pies. Not fancying his chances he decided to hightail it back before they decided to place him in one!
Christmas is for many people and not just children, the highlight of the year. Even though we may spend far more money and time than is really necessary it is still a time that people plan and work hard to provide for their families and themselves. It is the most important date in the calendar for many businesses ranging from retail stores, manufacturing, provision of food and beverages and many more. Indeed it seems to get more frenzied, stressful and expensive with every passing year. This article looks at how Christmas evolved through the ages through various cultures to the present date.
The Birth of Jesus
In Old English the word for Christmas is “Cristes Maesse,” meaning the Mass of Christ. Today we celebrate Christmas Day on the 25th of December as the birthday of Jesus Christ. The Western world has used the 25th of December as a nominal date to celebrate the birth of Jesus since 345 AD, before that his birth was celebrated on 6th January. The fact is that no one knows the exact day or year that Jesus was born on.
Many biblical scholars and historians point out that the Bible tells of shepherds tending flocks of sheep on the night Jesus was born and that it unlikely that they would be out in December because of the coldness of the winter in Judea. Some scholars think that Jesus was born in the spring, between March and May. Others argue for September. It is doubtful if we will ever know for sure unless some hidden knowledge is ever found. The important thing is that his birth is remembered and celebrated and the message kept alive.
Ancient Pagan Influences
Over the centuries Christians have changed the meaning and significance of many ancient pagan customs, traditions and festivals adapting them to suit Christian beliefs. Some may argue that it was an attempt to eradicate paganism while others say that it was a way of compromise that allowed old beliefs to be replaced by new in a less confrontational way.
In Egypt and Babylon both had mid-winter festivals and fertility festivals were also celebrate at this time of the year in many parts of Europe. In Phrygia the 25th of December was the celebration of the birth of the sun god, Attis and in ancient Persia they celebrated the birth of their god, Mythra.
The Chinese Dragon Dance is an extremely colorful and spectacular event that is traditionally performed at Chinese festivals around the word today. This article looks briefly at how it originated and evolved into the spectacular performances we see today.
In ancient Chinese culture the dragon was revered and venerated as a divine beast. It was regarded as auspicious creature that brought good luck and enhanced the well being of people. It became the symbol of honesty and decorum and was thought to control the waters of the earth especially rivers and the rainfall.
Chinese New Year celebrations
The Dragon Dance spectacularly expresses the vibrancy and energy associated with the dragon by the Chinese people. This has become a popular celebration around the world where ever enclaves of Chinese people are found and is performed from the Spring Festival until the Lantern Festival and is the centre point of the Chinese New Year celebrations.
The Dragon Dance is also known as the ‘Dance of dragon lantern’ or as ‘Playing dragon lantern’. Traditional dragons are constructed from bamboo, cloth and grasses and other materials found locally. The dragon dance is a much-loved folk dance performed during the Spring Festival and the Festival of Lanterns.
Origins of the Dragon Dance
The Dragon Dance is generally believed to have originated in the time of the Han Dynasty (180-230 AD). At the time, and still today, the Chinese people were very much an agrarian society depending for survival on their farming and agriculture for their daily needs.
Performing the Dragon Dance was a means of appeasing the dragon so that rain would fall in the right amounts for a good harvest and there would not be too much hot weather which brings drought, hunger and disease. During the Song dynasty it had become more of a folk dance that was performed during the major festivals.
The dance is performed by a team of dancers who move in a flowing way in imitation of way the dragon causes a river to move. The performers need to be very fit and move in a very coordinated way. They need to time their movements perfectly as a mistake by one dancer can have a domino effect on the other dancers ruining the performance.
The Dragon Dance today
The Dragon Dance celebrates the old year’s ending and welcomes in the New Year bringing the people good luck and blessings and banishing evil spirits.
Today it is performed all around the world where ever Chinese immigrants have settled and is a spectacular highlight to their celebrations and also enjoyed by millions of other people who are not of Chinese origin.
This article was originally published on Triond titled The Chinese Dragon Dance on Dec 4, 2012 by zteve t evans – Copyright December 4, 2012, zteve t evans
Dragon boat racing is a spectacular and exciting event and the highlight of the Dragon Boat Festival. In China and many other countries in south-east Asia, the Dragon Boat Festival, or more correctly the Duanwu Festival, is a traditional and national folk festival originating in China over 2000 years ago. It is one of the most popular and widespread of Chinese festivals and officially recognized. The festival is held on the fifth day of the fifth month by the Chinese lunar calendar and the last one was held on 5th May 2009, by western calendars.
Its origins are shrouded in history and there are different theories on how it began. The most popular account is that it was derived from the remembrance of Qu Yuan, the great Chinese poet and patriot.
Qu Yuan was a loyal minister to Emperor Huai, in the state of Chu, between 475 BC and 221 BC, which was known as the Warring States period. He was much respected for his patriotism, wisdom and integrity. Read more
The Dragon Boat Festival, or more correctly the Duanwu Festival, as well as being identified with dragon boat racing, is also strongly associated with other traditional Chinese customs and practices. Probably the most widespread and participated in is preparing and eating a customary rice dish called zongzi. It should be noted there are various ways to spell this and may vary with region.
The Legend of Qu Yuan
Qu Yuan – Painting by Chen Hongshou – Public Domain
The tradition of making and eating zongzi is strongly associated with the death of the great and much loved poet and patriot Qu Yuan. His suicide by drowning in a river was seen as a selfless act of patriotism by the people who loved him and who paid tribute to him by throwing rice balls into the river for his soul to eat. According to legend, his soul materialized before fishermen and began wailing that he was starving because the dragon in the river was eating the rice they threw to him. He told them to wrap the rice balls with lily leaves and asked them to seal it by tying it with silk thread. Eventually zongzi became wrapped in bamboo, or other kinds of leaves depending on region and availability.
Traditional Zongzi
Zongzi is a glutinous, or sticky, rice dumpling, with a filling. It is traditionally wrapped in bamboo leaves, though other leaves may be used depending on availability and region of China. The rice is usually formed around the filling into pyramid shapes, though cylinder and cone shapes can be used. The leaves are then wrapped around the shape and tied with string with a unique knot used to identify the type of filling. There are many different fillings such as pickled egg, peanuts beans, yam, melon seeds, dates, fruits, walnuts, or yam. The leaves can be palm, banana, wild rice, or bamboo.
Different regions have their own speciality zongzi. In Beijing the filling is sweet and made from a bean paste. In Guangdong there are two favourites. One has a sweet filling of date, walnut, or bean filling and the other is salty with meats such as chicken, ham duck and eggs, mushrooms, or chestnuts. An increasing number of shops and stalls sell zongzi on festival days and its popularity grows. Mostly in China the of making zongzi for eating and the giving as a gift is still practiced widely and often regarded as a family activity.
Zongzi Worldwide
Along with the Dragon Boat Festival, the popularity of eating zongzi is now growing around the world with Dragon Boat Festivals being held regularly in South East Asia and many western countries including the UK, USA, Canada, and Europe. Undoubtedly, each country will add something to the tradition and bring new flavours to the dish to be enjoyed.
Under the influence! 
.jpg){kind=link}
![Thomas Wyke [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons (cropped)](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_Wyke-_Thames_frost_fair.JPG){kind=link}
