English folklore

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The Celebrated Frost Fairs of the River Thames, London.

Thomas_Wyke-_Thames_frost_fair.jpg
1683-84 Frost Fair Thomas Wyke [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons (cropped)

This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com as London Folklore: The Legendary Frost Fairs of the River Thames by zteve t evans on December 27, 2018, and has been revised and edited with images added 4 March 2024 by zteve t evans.

Thames Frost Fairs

The historic Frosts Fairs held on the River Thames in London are depicted in several works of art that show how cold, icy, and severe the weather became during those events compared to the weather experienced in the capital in modern times. The idea of a Frost Fair on the icy surface of the River Thames in London may seem like a flight of fantasy today, especially when one appears or is mentioned several times in one of the UK’s favorite sci-fi television series, Dr Who. In one of the scenes set during the 1814 Thames Frost Fair, the doctor encounters an elephant walking across the frozen surface of the Thames. In another episode, the doctor takes River Song to the same event to celebrate her birthday. The Thames Frost Fairs are featured in two tracks on “Snow on Snow” by The Albion Christmas Band, a beautiful collection of Christmas and winter songs on CD. Today, the idea of such a novel event with crowds of people, stalls, entertainment and all the fun of the fair on the frozen River Thames may seem surreal. Nevertheless, it has happened several times in the past. Here, we look at some of these times and see how it affected Londoners, what they did, and how they coped in those frigid times.

The Little Ice Age

The River Thames has long been an important trade and transport route, and many large and small businesses flourish around it. The river swarmed with large and small boats crewed by watermen, who ferried people and goods up, down and across the river. Many people lived, worked, and died around the river, and a rich culture of folklore and legend evolved, some of which still exist today. With the great river’s importance to Londoners, how would they cope when it suddenly stopped flowing and froze solid, allowing no ships or boats to travel up, down or across it?

A series of sudden exceptionally cold periods of extreme wintery weather have caused this to happen several times. Although such a notion may seem nothing but legend and folklore, it is a historical fact that the River Thames has frozen several times, hard enough for usual daily commerce to be temporarily impossible. These extreme cold events happened during a period known as the Little Ice Age that lasted from 1300 to 1870. Expert opinion varies on this and the causes and is not dealt with here. It was also known to have frozen over in even earlier times. During the winter of 1536, Henry VIII was said to have enjoyed a sleigh ride to Greenwich from the center of London on the Thames ice. In 1564, Elizabeth I strolled upon the ice and practiced archery on the frozen river.

The worst of the big freezes occurred between 1550 and 1750, and during the winters of 1683 – 1684 and 1715 – 1716, the Thames was frozen for three months, but most events were usually much briefer. However, when it did freeze over, it brought the river and much of the city’s daily business to an abrupt halt. Nevertheless, Londoners, being innovative and enterprising, changed what they did to suit the weather. In its frozen state, the river became a highway that wagons and coaches could traverse while the boats were stuck in the ice. Furthermore, it became an extension of the land, offering new opportunities not just to make money but also to have fun and Londoners like to have fun.

The First Frost Fair (1607-08)

Great Frost -Printed at London: For Henry Gosson, 1608. Attributed to Thomas Dekker Dekker – Houghton Library, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1608, the first recorded London Frost Fair occurred on the icy surface of the River Thames. During December 1607, the ice was thick enough for people to walk from Southwark to the city. By January 1608, the ice was thick and solid enough for a host of activities on its surface. A small town of stalls, booths and tents sprang up, selling many diverse kinds of food and drink. Tradesmen such as shoemakers and barbers set up stalls selling their wares and services and even lit fires on the ice to keep warm and use for cooking.

The Frozen Thames 1677 – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Among them, skittles, bowling, and many other sports and activities took place for people to enjoy and participate in. Another popular game was “folk” football, unlike modern football, where two teams compete, and rules are followed. This competition was between two mobs with few rules which often became chaotic, unrestrained, riotous events.

The Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84

The diarist, writer and Fellow of the Royal Society, John Evelyn (1620 – 1706), provides an on-the-spot, eye-witness account of the event often called the Celebrated Frost Fair of 1683-84. On January 6, 1684, in his diary, he wrote,

“The frost continues more and more severe; the Thames before London was still planted with booths in formal streets, all sorts of trades and shops furnished, and full of commodities, even to a printing press, where the people and ladies took a fancy to have their names printed, and the day and year set down when printed on the Thames: this hum our took so universally, that it was estimated that the printer gained £5 a day, for printing a line only, at sixpence a name, besides what he got by ballads, etc.

Coaches plied from Westminster to the Temple and from several other stairs to and from, as in the streets, sleds, sliding with skates, bull-baiting, horse and coach-races, puppet-plays and interludes, cooks, tippling, and other lewd places, so that it seemed to be a bacchanalian triumph or carnival on the water, while it was a severe judgment on the land, the trees not only splitting as if the lightning struck, but men and cattle perishing in divers places, and the very seas so locked up with ice, that no vessels could stir out or come in. (1)

1684 Frost Fair – Abraham Hondius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Evelyn tells how even printers got in on the act. One name, Croom, had the idea of cashing in on the event’s novelty by selling souvenir cards for sixpence each. They carried the customer’s name and the date and proclaimed that it was printed on the frozen Thames. These were extremely popular, and Croon was said to make five pounds daily. Even King Charles II was said to have brought one. This impromptu frost fair began the rise of Chipperfield’s Circus, which also provided entertainment.

The sheer novelty of the frozen Thames inspired many enterprising and opportunistic citizens to make the best of the severe weather while making money and having fun at the same time. Despite the cold, young and old folk flocked to the frozen river in their thousands to enjoy the various activities and events that suddenly sprang up.

From a Print of the Frost Fair, 1684, we learn that hackney carriages and horse-drawn carts used the frozen river as a road. A street of booths and stalls sprang up selling beers, brandy, and every kind of alcoholic beverage, and there was music and dancing and many other entertainments and booths that sold hot coffee and food, 

Hot Codlins, Pancakes, Duck, Goose, and Sack,
Rabit, Capon, Hen, Turkey, and a wooden Jack.
In this same street before the Temple was made,
There seems to be a brisk and lively Trade:

There Roasted was a great and well-fed Oxe,
And there, with Dogs, Hunted the cunning Fox;
Dancing o’ th’ Ropes, and Puppit-plays likewise,
The like before we’re seen beneath the Skies; (2)

Events such as blood sports and folk football took place, and all sorts of merchants and traders brought their wares and services to sell on the ice. As more people flocked onto the frozen Thames, there was more money to be made, and the atmosphere became increasingly Bacchanalian with stalls selling liquor doing a roaring trade and each competing for custom from quaint, though aptly named booths, for example,

Where e’ry Booth hath such a cunning Sign,
As seldom hath been seen in former time;
The Flying Piss-pot is one of the same,
The Whip and Egg-shell, and the Broom by name: (3)

With its increasing popularity, there was more money to be made, and even more diverse trades set up shop on the ice. As well as being a place of novelty and entertainment, it became a market where all sorts of goods and merchandise were sold, and prices became higher on the ice than they were off it. Not everyone approved of what was happening on the Thames ice. For some people, the drunkenness and debauchery among the revelers and the shady dealings of many river traders caused concern that it was bringing out the worst in people.

The Frost Fair of 1715-16

Londoners were hit by another hard winter in 1715-16 when heavy snowfalls blanketed the city, and it was so cold that the Thames froze for almost three months. Once again, London entrepreneurs took to the ice, erecting booths, tents, and pavilions selling all kinds of goods and services. People flocked onto the frozen river to have fun. On January 19, two oxen were roasted over fires upon the ice. The activities on the frozen river drew people away from the theatres, and the Prince of Wales visited the Frost Fair.

Once again, entrepreneurial printers set stalls on the ice, publishing all sorts of printed paraphernalia. The Dawks were a London family of printers and booksellers, and one of them, Ichabod Dawks, published a regular newsletter called Dawks’ Newsletter, and on January 14, the news was,

“The Thames seems now a solid rock of ice; and booths for the sale of brandy, wine, ale, and other exhilarating liquors, have been for some time fixed thereon ; but now it is in a manner like a town: thousands of people cross it, and with wonder view the mountainous heaps of water, that now lie congealed into ice. On Thursday, a great cook’s-shop was erected, and gentlemen went as frequently to dine there as at any ordinary. Over against Westminster, Whitehall, and Whitefriars, Printing-presses are kept upon the ice, where many persons have their names printed, to transmit the wonders of the season to posterity.” (4)

Horse-drawn wagons, coaches, barrows, carts, and vehicles of all sorts were taken onto the ice, transporting goods and people upon the frozen surface, and a preacher aroused and warmed his congregation with an enthusiastic sermon.

The Thames, being a tidal river, was also subject to the tides as well as the frost and cold. An abnormally high tide raised the ice by fourteen feet, flooding cellars in buildings alongside the river but not putting the revelers out of their stride. On February 15, the ice began to thaw and split, ending the party.

The Great Frost of 1739-40

The winter of 1739-40 was another severe event remembered for the intense frost and cold and produced another Thames Frost Fair. It began on Christmas Day and lasted into the New Year before finally beginning to slowly thaw on February 17 and becoming known as The Great Frost. The weather was said to be more severe than the weather around Hudson’s Bay, Canada. The less impoverished and working-class citizens struggled to find food, fuel, and water. With the weather so bad, many traders, such as the watermen who worked on the Thames, fishermen, carpenters, bricklayers, and many other trades, could not operate. A march was held to bring their plight to the attention of the rich and the rulers of the city, who granted some relief to the suffering people.

A few days after the arrival of the Great Frost, a powerful storm struck the Thames and its estuary, causing considerable damage to boats and vessels. Icebergs and floes caused havoc and eventually froze together, covering the surface of the river to create an alien scene of a snowy field with small uneven hills of snow and ice and icebergs protruding through the icy white surface.

When the weather settled, another Frost Fair sprung up on the ice of the Thames, selling all sorts of goods and services. Again, the printers were there, and there were the usual drinking and eating booths, puppet shows and a wide variety of entertainment and sports. A carnival atmosphere prevailed as the people sought to forget the problems and difficulties that the severe weather brought. The ice lasted for about nine weeks before it thawed and broke up.

The Frost Fair of 1767-68

At the end of December 1767, a severe frost began and strengthened until January 16, causing the River Thames to freeze again. Ships, boats, and river vessels became trapped in the ice, and many were severely damaged or sunk by the ice flowing with the tides. During this period, many lives were lost, and the price of meat and food increased so much that impoverished people could not afford it. The Lord Mayor of London, Thomas Harley, provided subsidies for bringing fish to the Billingsgate market, helping to alleviate the suffering. Nevertheless, the less well-off citizens suffered great hardship in London and the surrounding countryside, where roads were impassable. Coal, fuel, and food became scarce and expensive because they could not be transported, and the severe weather caused many accidents and deaths. A violent storm also caused chaos and damage in the city, amounting to £50,000, a considerable sum of money in those days.

The Frost Fair of 1788-89

A severe frost began on November 25, 1788, and lasted seven weeks. On January 5, the Thames froze over, as before, a fair and market with puppet shows, drinking and eating booths, and even exhibits of wild animals appeared on the ice.

The Gentleman’s Magazine reported that on January 10, 1889, thirteen men drove a wagon carrying a ton of coal from Loughborough, Leicestershire and delivered it to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House. The clerk of the cellars paid them four guineas, but when His Highness heard of their feat, he ordered them to be rewarded with 20 guineas and a pot of beer each. On January 13, the Prince of Wales donated £1,000 to relieve the impoverished during the severe weather.

On Saturday, January 17, the captain of a ship negotiated an agreement with a publican to secure his boat to his premises, which lay close to the Thames bank. An anchor was taken into the publican’s cellar and made fast. At the same time, a cable was attached to a structural beam of the building. In the night, the weather and currents took hold of the ship, causing the publican’s structure to be destroyed and five people killed. (5)

The magazine also reports that in February 1789, entertainment and booths appeared on the ice of the Thames with all manner of entertainment. All kinds of food and drinks were sold with fires roasting oxen, sheep, and pigs. Once again, the Thames became a place of carnival and festival, yet, despite the merriment, the poorer citizens suffered terribly with little food, water, or fuel for warmth. There was little work to be had that could be done to earn money, and the City of London raised 1,500 pounds to alleviate the suffering. (6)

The Last Frost Fair (1814)

The Fair on the Thames, February 4th 1814 – Luke Clenell – Public Domain – via Wikimedia Commons

The last frost fair on the frozen River Thames began on February 1, 1814, and lasted four days. As with previous Frost Fairs, an enterprising printer named George Davis set up a stall and typeset, printed, and published a 124-page book titled Frostiana; or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State, which he sold as a souvenir. Again, stalls and booths sprang up, selling a vast array of goods, wares, and services. The watermen, unable to work, used the sails from their boats to make booths and tents to accommodate the selling of food such as roast meat and gingerbread.

While tea, coffee and hot chocolate were readily available, gin, beer and wine were more popular. These beverages were sold in “fuddling tents, “temporary makeshift inns. A variety of entertainments were held on the ice, including skittles, football, ox roasts and dancing. The watermen charged for entry onto the ice and to watch events such as an ox being roasted. Often, the same families whose ancestors had provided these services for previous Frost Fairs were the providers this time. The atmosphere was raucous, with a lot of drunkenness and people being fleeced of money. There were no policemen in those days, and the watermen kept order, broke up fights and controlled the ice. As previously mentioned, one of the most novel events was when someone led an elephant across the frozen river, creating an extraordinary scene.

Problems and Hardship

Frost Fairs on the Thames were not all fun and frolic; they also brought massive problems and hardship. The severe weather that produced the conditions to enable a frost fair also brought issues for Londoners. John Evelyn tells us,

“The fowls, fish, and birds, and all our exotic plants and greens, universally perishing. Many parks of deer were destroyed, and all sorts of fuel so dear, that there were great contributions to preserve the poor alive. Nor was this severe weather much less intense in most parts of Europe, even as far as Spain and the most southern tracts. London, by reason of the excessive coldness of the air hindering the ascent of the smoke, was so filled with the fuliginous steam of the sea-coal, that hardly could one see across the street, and this filling the lungs with its gross particles, exceedingly obstructed the breast, so as one could scarcely breathe. Here was no water to be had from the pipes and engines, nor could the brewers and divers other tradesmen work, and every moment was full of disastrous accidents.” (7)

When the ice started to melt and break up, it became treacherous, causing death to people and animals, damage to property, and flooding. The harsh weather also affected people in the countryside, other parts of the UK, and Europe.

Future Frost Fairs

The Old London Bridge (1176-1825) was one of the most iconic images of London and partly responsible for the Thames freezing over. Its design slowed the water and trapped ice floes, causing them to clog up the river and freeze together. The river was shallower, broader, and flowed slower than today, making it easier to freeze. In 1831, the Old London Bridge was demolished and replaced by one designed to have wider arches that allowed the river to flow unimpeded. Also, the construction of the Thames embankments made it deeper and flow faster, reducing the chances of it freezing over on its way through London, with the same intensity as in the past.

Another factor that might contribute to preventing a big freeze on the scale of the past is the heat given off by the mass of tarmac, concrete, and heated buildings, which helps keep London warmer in winter than areas outside the capital. Conversely, in the summer, it can make it uncomfortably warmer. That being said, no one knows what the future will bring with global warming, and there may be a few surprises.

London Folklore

The Thames Frost Fairs became a part of the rich bank of London folklore. Works of art and literature of the time give future generations a vivid impression of the sheer novelty and rarity of these rare unique events enjoyed, but also suffered, by Londoners. The Frost Fairs were a testament to the endurance and enterprising spirit of Londoners and an example of their ability to make the best out of what must have been tough times for many people.

As time passed, legends emerged from historical events as facts became exaggerated and embellished, enhancing their novelty for later generations whose curiosity is aroused by the differences between what they experience in the present and what happened in the past.

© zteve t evans

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Legends of Wild Edric: The Wild Hunt, the Faerie Bride and the Monster Fish

Wild Hunt – Image by Franz Stuck [Public domain]
This article was originally posted on #FolkloreThursday.com on 27/06/2019 titled British Legends: Wild Edric, the Wild Hunt and the Bride from the Otherworld by zteve t evans, it has been revised and editted and new images added 6 March 2924.

Wild Edric

Wild Edric, also known as Eadric the Wild, was an Anglo-Saxon earl, the lord of 56 manors, and one of the wealthiest men in Shropshire and Herefordshire. He was also sometimes referred to as Eadric Silvaticus. According to tradition, he was an enthusiastic huntsman, pursuing game in areas of the Forest of Clun, Stiperstones, and the Long Mynd. In many ways, he was a controversial figure with his people. He lived during the Norman invasion of England and played a significant role in resisting the Norman Conquest. In some accounts, he is a charismatic resistance leader boldly taking on the Normans; others say he let his people down when he eventually made peace with King William. Nevertheless, despite this ambiguity, his life and actions inspired the development of folklore and myths centered around him, giving him legendary status.

The Norman Conquest

Although he was not believed to have fought at the Battle of Hastings, King William still confiscated most of his manors to distribute to his Norman barons. Therefore, between 1068-70, Edric allied himself with Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, Prince of Gwynedd, and his brother, Riwallon, the Prince of Powys, the Welsh resistance leaders opposed to William. They attacked Hereford in Herefordshire but could not capture the castle and retreated. The Normans retaliated by attacking Edric many times but couldn’t defeat him.

Retreat

In 1069, William led his army to quell a rebellion by the Earl Mokar of Northumberland and his brother Edwin. While William was preoccupied, Edric and his Welsh allies joined rebels from Cheshire to attack Norman lands in northern parts of Shropshire. They burnt Shrewsbury but were unable to take the castle. Upon hearing about the assault, William turned his army around and headed south. Instead of facing William, Edric retreated to Shropshire.

The Welsh and Cheshire rebels fought William but were defeated near Stafford. William was unsatisfied with this victory and attacked and laid waste to the land. Eventually, Edric was forced to make peace and swear allegiance to King William, who took all but three of his remaining manors. In 1072, Edric supported and accompanied William in an attack on Scotland.

Imprisonment

Stiperstones by Bladeflyer, CC BY 2.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

According to some legends, Edric’s surrender and support for the Normans greatly displeased his people. They imprisoned him, his wife, Lady Godda, and his fighters in lead mines on a rocky hill in Shropshire called Stiperstones and placed a curse upon them. Under this malediction, Wild Edric, Lady Godda, and the warrior host must ride out and fight the enemy whenever there is a threat to England. Once the threat is ended, they must return to their underground prison to await further threats, which must also be fought. They cannot die until England is returned to how it was before the Norman Conquest and all wrongs have been made right. Several legends tell of alleged sightings of Wild Edric and his host riding out in times of danger of defeat to the country. One occasion was during the Crimean War in 1814, before the First World War in 1914, and before the Second World War in 1939.

The Crimean War

During the Crimean War, a girl from Rorrington claimed she and her father had seen Wild Edric and his host. On hearing a note from a huntsman’s horn, her father told her to close her eyes and stand still until the host had passed by. However, the girl opened her eyes and alleged she saw Wild Edric and Lady Godda riding at the head of a great host of warriors. According to her, Edric wore a green feather in his dark hair and a cloak of green. At his side, he carried a sword and a horn. Lady Godda had long blond hair that reached down to her waist. She wore a white headband around her forehead and a dagger at her side.

The Wild Hunt

Possibly due to alleged sightings and his reputation as a huntsman, Edric became associated with the Wild Hunt legend found in many parts of Europe. The Wild Hunt was a group of phantom horsemen and spectral hunting dogs that raced wildly across the sky or skimmed just above the ground. They were believed to be hunting souls, particularly the lost and newly dead, whom they would capture and take away. There was also a belief that as they passed, they could draw out the souls of those asleep and carry them away to become one of them.

The Monster Fish of Bomere Pool

Monster Fish – zteve t evans using Copilot Designer

Another Shropshire legend connected with Wild Edric is the monster fish of Bomere Pool that carries Wild Edric’s sword strapped to its side. No angler has managed to catch it, though a fisherman once netted it, but the fish drew the sword and cut itself free. The determined angler made a net of iron links and managed to net it again, bringing it to land. Again, it drew the sword, cut itself free and jumped back into the pool. This incident shocked and frightened the people so much that no one dared to attempt to catch it again. It was sometimes spotted basking in the shallows, still carrying the sword.

Wild Edric was said to have been born nearby in the Saxon manor of Condover, which was part of his inheritance, which his family was cheated out of. According to this legend, the sword was given to the monster fish for safekeeping until the true heir to the manor arrived to claim the inheritance. At such a time, he would present him with the sword.

Lady Godda

Another legend gives Edric an alternative fate to that of the Wild Hunt after he marries a lady from the Otherworld. One day, while hunting in the forest of Clun, just as dark was falling, he saw the lights of a mansion in the distance and decided to seek shelter there. He knocked on the door, but no one answered. As it was open, he entered and was surprised to see several beautiful ladies dancing in a circle around one lady dancing in the centre. Although they were all exceedingly beautiful, the woman in the middle was taller and fairer than the others and dressed more elegantly. The others danced gracefully around her, softly singing a strange and haunting song.

Edric fell in love at first sight with the lady in the circle’s centre. He realised they were all women from the Otherworld, but, ignoring the fear of being caught in a spell, rushed in and quickly carried her out of the circle. Immediately, the rest of the ladies turned into screaming, ferocious fiends fighting to protect their sister. They attacked him, biting and scratching viciously at his flesh, but Edric managed to carry the lady across the threshold. Her enraged sisters feared to pursue further, and he managed to escape their clutches. Lifting her onto his horse, he raced through the woods back to his home.

Lady Godda Dancing – zteve t evans using Copilot Designer

During her abduction, the lady had not struggled or uttered a single word but was indignant at his treatment of her. For three days, she ignored his soft words and promises of love and sat demurely, refusing to talk. It was not until the fourth day was nearly done that she suddenly spoke,

“My name is Godda. I believe you are a good man. I will be your bride, but conditions must be fulfilled. I will bring you good luck and you will enjoy good health, peace, and abundance while I live with you. Be warned! Should you ever reproach me because of my sisters, or the place I am from, or for what I am, you shall lose your bride from the Otherworld. From that day on you will lose your wealth, your health and waste away to your death, pining for your bride from the Otherworld you have lost forever.”

Edric agreed and promised eternal faithfulness. They were married, and he hosted a splendid wedding feast.

When King William learned of Edric’s bride from the Otherworld, he summoned them to his court to meet her and see her loveliness for himself. Her rare beauty quickly convinced him that she was indeed from the Otherworld. The king’s curiosity satisfied Edric, and his wife left for home and lived happily together for many years.

The Broken Promise

One evening, after a long hunting trip, Edric returned home but could not find his wife anywhere. He sought high and low for her, becoming angrier and angrier until finally, she appeared. In his fury, he said,

“No doubt you have been busy dancing with your sisters when you should have been here at home awaiting my return!”

To his shock, her face turned to sorrow, and she vanished before his eyes as soon as he stopped speaking. In a flash, Edric remembered their wedding contract and was overcome with grief because of his thoughtlessness. In desperation, he begged and cried, pleading day and night for her to return, but all to no avail. Just as she had warned, his body wasted away, and he died in grief for the happiness he had known but could never have again.

A Complex Legacy

In summary, Eadric’s legacy is complex. His initial resistance to the Normans made him a hero to many people. On the other hand, others saw his defiance as futile, only making the situation worse for his people. Until his surrender to King William, the Normans saw him as a dangerous rebel, but this changed after he joined William to help conquer Scotland. However, this did not go down well with many of his people, who saw him as a turncoat, hence the legend of his imprisonment in the lead mines of Stiperstones. Nevertheless, for all these complexities, he undeniably remains a significant figure in English history and folklore.

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King Leir and Cordelia: A King’s Foolishness, A Daughter’s Love

King Lear, Act I, Scene I – Edwin Austin Abbey , Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com under the title, British Legends: King Lear and Cordelia – A Tale of Love and Foolishness, by zteve t evans on May 30th, 2019 and edited and revised 7 April 2024. Images may differ from original.

Legendary Rulers of Britain

King Leir and his youngest daughter, Queen Cordelia, are renowned leaders of the Britons. In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth recorded their story in his book “History of the Kings of Britain” (Historia regum Britanniae), and this is a short retelling of their story.

King Leir

After his father, King Bladud, died, Leir took the throne. He went on to establish a settlement named Kaerleir on the river Soar, which eventually became the city of Leicester, named after him. As Leir grew older, he started pondering the future of his kingdom, as he had no son to succeed him. He did have three daughters and decided to marry them to suitable husbands and divide the kingdom between them. But first, he decided to test his daughter’s love by asking them how much they loved him to determine who would receive the best part of his inheritance.

A Test of Love

First, he asked his eldest daughter, Goneril. Seeking solely to impress and flatter, she told him she loved him more than her soul. Pleased with her answer, he told her,

“Since you have preferred my declining age before your own life, I will marry you, my dearest daughter, to whomsoever you shall make choice of, and give with you the third part of my kingdom.” (1)

Next, he asked Regan, his second eldest daughter, the same question. Seeing how well her elder sister had been rewarded for her flattery, she told him she loved him above all creatures. Again, Leir was impressed and pleased by the answer, telling her she would have a husband of her choice and receive one-third of his kingdom.

Last, he called his youngest and favourite daughter, Cordelia, and asked her the same question. Cordelia had observed how easily her sisters’ flattery had won him over, so to test his love for her, she decided to speak of her love for him.

“My, father, is there any daughter that can love her father more than duty requires? In my opinion, whoever pretends to it, must disguise her real sentiments under the veil of flattery. I have always loved you as a father, nor do I yet depart from my purposed duty; and if you insist to have something more extorted from me hear now the greatness of my affection, which I always bear you, and take this for a short answer to all your questions; look how much you have, so, much is your value, and so much do I love you.” (2)

Her father was so eager to hear words of praise that he failed to comprehend his daughter’s message. Responding in a fit of rage, he rebuked her without realizing his mistake,

“Since you have so far despised my old age as not to think me worthy the love that your sister’s express for me, you shall have from me the like regard, and shall be excluded from any share with your sisters in my kingdom. Notwithstanding, I do not say but that since you are my daughter, I will marry you to some foreigner, if fortune offers you any such husband; but will never, I do assure you, make it my business to procure so honourable a match for you as for your sisters; because, though I have hitherto loved you more than them, you have in requital thought me less worthy of your affection than they.” (3)

After completing his test, he married Goneril to Maglaunus, the Duke of Albania, and Regan to Henuinus, the Duke of Cornwall. They would share the rest of his kingdom when he died, and Cordelia would get nothing.

King Aganippus

Across the sea in Gaul, Aganippus, the king of the Franks, sought a wife. Hearing of the beauty of Leir’s youngest daughter, he sent emissaries to her father asking for her hand in marriage. Still angry with Cordelia, Leir told them that he was willing to give his daughter but without money or land. The emissaries returned to Aganippus with Leir’s answer, who told them to return to King Leir with the following message,

“That he had money and territories enough, as he possessed the third part of Gaul, and desired no more than his daughter only, that he might have heirs by her.” (4)

This satisfied Leir and sent Cordelia to Gaul to wed King Aganippus.

Deposed and Humiliated

KIng Lear and Cordelia –
Benjamin West , CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

With age, Leir grew weaker, and seeing their chance, his sons-in-law, encouraged by his daughters, usurped the crown. An agreement was made that Maglaunus, the husband of Goneril, was to give and maintain a house for him and provide a retinue of sixty knights. But Goneril grew to begrudge her father his retinue and reduced their number to thirty.

Leir resented this and went to Regan, who had married Henuinus. They gave him a warm welcome and honourable reception but soon fell into quarrelling with him. Out of spite, Regan reduced her father’s entourage to five.

Finding it an insult to his dignity and honor, he returned to Goneril for support. However, she told him he must dismiss all remaining retinues except one if he wanted to stay with her. Leir was forced to comply but now remembered Cordelia, whom he had scorned and sent over the sea penniless to marry King Aganippus. Reflecting on his poverty, he remembered his treatment of her and wondered how she would receive him. Nevertheless, believing there was no other choice, he travelled across the sea, hoping she would treat him more favourably than her sisters had.

Cordelia

On board the ship, he was dismayed to find two princes were both given more respect and honour than he and bitterly complained,

“O irreversible decrees of the Fates, that never swerve from your stated course! why did you ever advance me to an unstable felicity, since the punishment of lost happiness is greater than the sense of present misery? The remembrance of the time when vast numbers of men obsequiously attended me in the taking of cities and wasting the enemy’s countries, more deeply pierces my heart than the view of my present calamity, which has exposed me to the derision of those who were formerly prostrate at my feet. Oh! the enmity of fortune! (5)

At last, he understood Cordelia’s words of her love for him. He bitterly regretted his treatment of his youngest daughter, who had answered truthfully and not given false flattery. He arrived in Karitia, where Cordelia was living, with bitter thoughts in his mind. Without any delay, he sent a messenger to inform Cordelia about his presence in the city. The messenger also informed her about his current poverty, his desperation, and the indignity he was facing.

Cordelia, now a queen after her marriage to King Aganippus, was surprised by his arrival and deeply upset and shocked at the news of his impoverishment. She ensured he was well fed and lodged, providing him with forty men, all suitably trained and attired to serve a royal master. She instructed them to inform her as soon as he was bathed, rested, and suitably dressed, to suit his kingly status.

Her instructions were carried out, and she and her father were reunited and reconciled. He told her how he had been mistreated by his two eldest daughters and their husbands and had come to seek her and her husband’s assistance in recovering his realm. Giving him a fitting reception for a king, she and her husband promised all their power would be mobilised to return his kingdom to him.

Aganippus ordered his army to prepare for the invasion of Britain. King Leir led the host, supported by King Aganippus and Queen Cordelia. The battle commenced, and Leir was the victor, retaking his kingdom from his sons-in-law.

The Death of Leir and Cordelia

Leir was now a very old man and soon passed away after ruling over the Britons for the second time. Sadly, King Aganippus also passed away, and Queen Cordelia became the ruler of the Britons. She buried her father in the city of Leicester in a chamber under the river Soar, which was once a temple for the worship of the god Janus.

After five years of rule, the sons of her two elder sisters, Margan, the son of Maglaunus, and Cunedagius, the son of Henuinus, resented being ruled by a woman and launched a rebellion, laying waste to great swathes of the realm. After several bloody battles, they captured Cordelia and held her in prison. In grief and sorrow at the loss of her realm, she committed suicide.

The story of King Leir and Cordelia has inspired many works of art and literature throughout the ages; the most famous, William Shakespeare’s tragedy, King Lear, remains as popular as ever.

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The Strange Tale of Princess Caraboo of Javescu

Princess Caraboo of Javasu (Mary Baker), 1817 (oil on panel) by Bird, Edward (1722-1819) – Public Domain
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com by zteve t evans on 21/03/2019 under the title The Curious Case of Princess Caraboo. It has since been revised and edited by zteve t evans 19 April 2024.

Princess Caraboo

In the spring of 1817, a young woman appeared in the quaint Gloucestershire village of Almondsbury, claiming to be none other than Princess Caraboo from a far-off land. Her sudden arrival caused quite a commotion in Regency England, with locals and dignitaries eager to learn more about this mysterious and exotic visitor. And so began the captivating tale of Princess Caraboo. This story would soon capture the hearts and imaginations of people nationwide. She had sleek black hair, was about 5ft 2 inches tall, did not have the appearance of someone used to hard physical work and was dressed strangely.

To the bewilderment of all, she spoke an unknown language, apparently not understanding any questions in English and appeared lost and confused. Her only possessions were her clothes, a counterfeit sixpence and a couple of halfpennies. Possessing counterfeit money was a serious crime, and she was not carrying any form of identification, so her identity could not be determined. She was taken to the local Overseer of the Poor, who took her to the county magistrate, Samuel Worrall of Knole Park. Worrall, or his American-born wife, Elizabeth, could not comprehend her either but, using signs, managed to understand that she called herself Princess Caraboo.

The Worralls

Mrs Worrall decided she should be taken to the local inn, where she would be given supper and a private bedroom for the night. In the morning, she would visit and talk to her further to decide what could be done for her. On arriving at the inn, Caraboo saw a painting hung on a wall depicting a pineapple. Excitedly, she recognised it repeatedly, calling it “ananas”, a word in some Indo-European languages for a pineapple.

While waiting for supper, she conveyed she desired a cup of tea. She was given one, but before drinking, she bowed her head, covered her eyes, appeared to murmur a prayer in an unknown language, and then sipped the tea. When it was gone, she was offered a refill but would only accept it once the cup had been thoroughly washed, and she repeated the same ritual. After her supper, she was shown to her bedroom, and with her host’s bemusement, she prepared herself for sleeping on the floor, even though her room had a good bed. After the landlady’s daughter demonstrated how to use it, she knelt in prayer, undressed, and got into bed.

Manuel Eynesso

Worrall sent her to the Mayor of Bristol, John Haythorne. But he could not understand the girl either and sent her to St. Peter’s Hospital, as the law required. At the same time, further investigations were made for a possible trial. While in hospital, a Portuguese sailor named Manuel Eynesso contacted the authorities, claiming he could speak her language. The authorities agreed to let him talk to her, and after doing so, he told them her name was Princess Caraboo, and she was foreign-born. She came to England from an island called Javasu in the Indian Ocean after pirates had abducted her and had sailed to England with her on board. She had managed to escape the ship by jumping overboard in the Bristol Channel and swam ashore.

Kidnapped in Javescu

Samuel Worrall and his wife were convinced by what she had told them. They believed she was a royal princess who had suffered terribly at the hands of pirates and invited her back into their home. While there, a well-to-do gentleman who had travelled extensively to China and the East Indies took an interest in her and attempted to communicate with her using signs and gestures. In this way, she appeared to confirm her name was Caraboo and that her father was a man of high status in her country of birth, China, though she called it Congee. Furthermore, she confirmed she had been kidnapped by pirates in a place called Javasu and worshipped a god called Allah-Tallah. He also apparently learnt that her mother was a Malay woman who had been killed in fighting between cannibals called Boogoos and the Malays.

The day she was kidnapped, she had been in the company of her maidservants walking in the gardens. Pirates led by someone called Chee-min had captured, bound, and gagged her and carried her off to their ship. Furthermore, she asserted when they untied her, she attacked two of the pirates, killing one and wounding the other. After 11 days, she was sold to a ship’s captain named Tappa Boo, who set sail for Europe. On reaching England and sailing up the Bristol Channel, she escaped by jumping overboard and swimming ashore. On reaching shore, she wandered around for six weeks before arriving in Almondsbury.

Celebrity Status

For the press and media, the incredible adventures of a brave foreign princess, kidnapped by pirates and transported half around the world, was an opportunity not to be missed, and she became a celebrity. Lords, ladies, and other dignitaries flocked to meet the brave and exotic princess. She did not disappoint them, showing off her skills with a bow and arrow, giving fencing demonstrations and swimming naked in the estate lake. Before going to bed at night, she would pray to her god and sometimes climb to the top of a tree to commune with her god. All her high-ranking visitors were wildly enthralled by this strange, exotic princess and her bizarre behaviour and language.

As her fame spread, she dressed in exotic clothes and had her portrait painted, which was printed in local newspapers. However, while looking through a copy of the Bristol Journal, a boarding housekeeper named Mrs Neale instantly recognised her as Mary Baker (born Willcocks), a cobbler’s daughter from Witheridge, Devon, who had lodged with her.

Folk Heroine

Caraboo – Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

When the truth became known, the press may have been expected to vilify and condemn Mary Baker, but conversely, the opposite happened. They lampooned and lambasted the Worralls and all their learned rural gentry who had let a simple, uneducated girl make fools of themselves. She had successfully pulled the wool over their eyes, becoming a celebrity twice over and, in two months, something of a folk heroine.

The press, ignoring their own part in creating the sensation, ridiculed and satirised the individuals, gentry, and intellectuals involved. The fact that a poor, uneducated, working-class girl had managed to fool so many upstanding and well-to-do individuals was a great source of mirth for many people up and down the country, and the public lapped it up.

The Crucial Factor

So, how did a relatively uneducated, poor, homeless girl manage to fool such eminent people? For a start, despite her lack of education, she was intelligent and quick-witted. She quickly realised they believed she could not speak or comprehend English because they talked about her in her presence, thinking she did not understand. It was this behaviour that had helped her to lead them on and manipulate them, which is why she always seemed so credible. They also showed her books and pictures of foreign places and languages, which further helped her. The Worralls gave her food and shelter, which was possibly enough motivation for a poor homeless girl. Moreover, and perhaps above all, she was getting attention as someone of significance and interest to many important people.

Did Mary deliberately mislead them, or was there something else? According to Mrs Neale, Mary was a strange girl who made up languages from gipsy words she had picked up on her travels. Could she have been suffering from some personality or psychiatric disorder, perhaps something in the Autistic Spectrum or Asperger’s Syndrome?

Mary in America

Mary was given a boat fare for Philadelphia and left on June 28th, 1817. Mary’s story was known in America, and she was greeted enthusiastically as Princess Caraboo and gave performances of the princess in theatres. In 1824, she returned to England, giving performances of Princess Caraboo in London’s New Bond Street and Bath and Bristol, where she married, became pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter in 1829.

In 1839, she was known to be selling leeches to the Bristol Infirmary Hospital, which may have involved the unpleasant task of collecting them. Although animals were sometimes used to attract them, collectors often used their legs, and problems caused by infections and blood loss were a high risk for collectors. Mary died on Christmas Eve, 1864, and was buried in an unmarked grave in Hebron Road Burial Ground, Bedminster, and Bristol.

Whatever Mary’s real motives were in creating Princess Caraboo are hard to decide. Nevertheless, whether it was an intentional hoax, a personality disorder or something that just spiralled out of control, the flamboyant and mysterious persona she created was not forgotten after her demise. Her story is told in the 1994 film, “Princess Caraboo,” directed by Michael Austen; a novel “The Curious Tale of the Lady Caraboo,” in 2015, by Catherine Johnson; several stage musical adaptations and a stage musical, Princess Caraboo, with a book, with lyrics by Phil Willmott and composed by Mark Collins.

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Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen

1) Britomart – Frederic Shields, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons
This article was first published under the title of British Legends: Warrior Women — The Battle of Britomart and Radigund the Amazon Queen on #FolkloreThursday.com, 28/02/2019 by zteve t evans, and has been revised and edited by zteve t evans and different images added 23/04/2024.

The Faerie Queene

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene, a monumental and unfinished poem published between 1590 and 1596, is a masterpiece that transports readers to a parallel universe of medieval times, offering a unique perspective on Elizabethan society. Through the intricate and richly detailed plot, Spenser alludes to historical events and notable figures, inviting readers to reflect on the complexities of the human experience. The Faerie Queene is not merely a literary work but a testament to the power of imagination and the enduring legacy of great literature. Its influence can be felt in contemporary literature, and its message resonates with readers today, inspiring them to explore the world of fantasy and appreciate the many ways literature enriches our lives. Spencer draws on Arthurian influences, legend, myth, history, and politics, alluding to reforms and controversial issues that arose in the reigns of Elizabeth I and Mary I.

It is an allegorical work that both praises and criticizes Queen Elizabeth I, represented in the poem by Gloriana, the Faerie Queene. A knight represents the six human virtues of Holiness, Chastity, Friendship, Temperance, Justice, and Courtesy. Spencer raises many questions about Elizabethan society, especially about the role of women in maintaining the patriarchal order, represented by a spectacular battle between Britomart, the Knight of Chastity, and Radigund, the Amazon Queen. The following text summarizes the battle, discusses its implications, and ends with a question for the reader.

Britomart, the Knight of Chastity

2) Britomart by Walter Crane, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In the narrative, Britomart is a virgin female knight who personifies the virtue of Chastity and is associated with English virtues, particularly military prowess. The name “Brit” comes from “Briton” while “Martis” comes from the Roman god of war, “Mars”, meaning “warlike person”.

From an early age, she eschewed traditional feminine activities. Instead, she chose to train in using weapons and developing combat skills. She dressed in armour like a knight, behaved like a knight, fought like a knight, and wielded a magical black spear, becoming a formidable warrior.

After a long quest and many adventures seeking him, she finally married Artegall, the Knight of Justice, whom she had seen in Merlin’s magic-looking glass. Yet, as was often the way with knights, Artegall was bound to a quest that to abandon would bring loss of honour. Gloriana, the Faerie Queene, had given him the task of rescuing Lady Eirena from the tyrant Grantorto, and it was his chivalric duty to complete the quest or die trying. Despite her sorrow at his leaving, Britomart knew she had to allow him to complete it and looked forward to his return.

Queen Radigund, the Warrior Queen

On his quest, Artegall, accompanied by Talos, an iron man who helped him in the dispensation of justice, arrived in the country of the Amazons, ruled by Radigund, a warrior queen. Radigund fought against any knight entering her realm who would not submit to her will. After defeating them, she forced them to obey her every command or die. She made all defeated knights remove their armour and, against their will, wear female clothing, compelling them to work by spinning thread, sewing, washing clothes and other tasks those women usually did. If any refused or complained, she executed them. On hearing Artegall had arrived, Radigund challenged him to fight on the condition that the loser, if they lived, would obey the winner’s will. Artegall accepted, and a ferocious fight began.

The Battle of Radigund and Artegall

Radigund attacked him furiously, driving him back, but he struck her shield, splitting it in two. Enraged, she fought back viciously, badly wounding his thigh. Thinking she had him at her mercy, she taunted and mocked him. Now, it was his turn to be enraged, and he struck a decisive blow to her head, knocking her senseless to the ground. As he stooped to take off her helmet to decapitate her, he was stunned by her beautiful face and could not harm her. Instead, he threw away his sword, cursing that he had hurt such a lovely woman. Recovering her wits, Radigund sprang to the attack, driving him back. He could not return the blows, having thrown his sword away. He would not have done so anyway, perceiving it dishonourable to fight a female. Instead, he deflected her blows with his shield while pleading for her to stop fighting.

Artegall Surrenders

3) Artegall and Talos – Tate Britain, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

She refused and continued striking at him until he yielded, not wishing to harm her again. Despite his initial victory, by throwing his sword away and yielding, he was now bound by the terms he had agreed upon and was taken into the servitude of the Amazon Queen. She took his armour, dressed him in female clothing, and kept him prisoner, making him work at female tasks, which for a knight in those times was perceived as being demeaning and humiliating. Talos escaped and took the news of his captivity back to Britomart.

Britomart in the Land of the Amazons

Learning of her husband’s plight, Britomart set out to rescue him accompanied by Talos. They barely rested until reaching the land of the Amazons and then set up their pavilion outside the city. Seeing this, Radigund armed herself and, ordering trumpets to sound, marched out of the city gates to challenge her. Britomart stepped boldly out of the pavilion, ready for whatever the day would bring. When the two finally met face to face, Radigund recited the strict conditions she wanted the fight governed by. These were the same Artegall and all the other knights had agreed that now bound them to her in their defeat.

The Knight of Chastity Versus the Amazon Queen

Britomart refused these conditions, declaring she would only be bound by the rules of chivalry. This angered Radigund, who signalled for the trumpet to sound the beginning of the fight. They both attacked each other savagely, asking for no quarter and giving none. Fighting furiously, they hacked and stabbed at one another until the ground under their feet was red with blood, but doggedly, they fought on. Eventually, Radigund, sensing Britomart was weakening, thrust forward with all her strength, taunting her by saying, “This is for the man you love so much. I will tell him you died just for him!” and struck powerfully at her shoulder, cutting her to the bone.

Despite being sorely wounded, the blow roused Britomart to great anger. Throwing herself forward, she brought her sword down upon her foe’s helmet, splitting it apart. Radigund fell senseless to the ground, and Britomart finished her off with one blow. When the Amazons saw the death of their queen, they fled. Britomart desperately wanted to find her beloved Artegall and began searching the city until she found where the knights were imprisoned. On entering, she was shocked to the core by what she saw.

Freeing the Defeated Knights

Every knight had been made to wear female clothing and forced to do female tasks. At last, she found Artegall, who had also suffered the same fate as the others. Seeing her, he turned his face away in shame. Quickly finding other garments, she made him and the others put these on, and soon, her husband looked like the man she knew him to be

They stayed in the city until Britomart had recovered from her wounds. During this time, she took control of the realm, changing the government and the ways of the Amazons and dispensing justice that Radigund had usurped. The people soon grew to love her, listened to her wisdom, and followed her teachings. She freed all the captured knights and made them city magistrates, making them swear loyalty to Artegall, the Knight of Justice.

Artegall, remembering his quest to save Lady Eirena from the villainous clutches of the tyrant Grantorto, told Britomart that it was his knightly duty to resume his adventure. Britomart knew he was obliged to complete the quest for the sake of his honour and reputation, and sorrowfully, she resigned herself to him leaving again.

The Role of Elizabeth I

4) Queen Elizabeth I – Formerly attributed to George Gower, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Spencer needed to be careful how he presented Radigund with Elizabeth ruling England. He made a great effort to show the Amazon queen as a wicked oppressor who does not rule men by respect but weakens and subjugates them. In contrast, Britomart emancipates men, bolstering their masculinity and self-assurance of their role in society. The captive knights were uncomfortable and distressed when forced to wear female apparel, perceiving themselves to have lost masculinity, strength, and identity.

Britomart’s cross-dressing, wearing the armour of a male knight, was her choice, in contrast to Radigund’s enforced cross-dressing of the captive knights. Britomart appeared happy and comfortable in her chosen attire, and her personality shone out. She became one of the bravest, most formidable, and arguably one of the most swashbuckling knights in The Faerie Queene. However, having rescued the captive knights from the renegade Radigund, she seemed like the handmaiden of Elizabethan patriarchy, but there is a twist.

In doing so, she accomplished what the male knights could not. She restored the patriarchal order after the strong arms of the male knights had failed. It was she who returned the Amazons to the patriarchal system. Whereas Radigund represents renegade female power at war with Elizabethan patriarchy, Britomart is seen as the correct application of female power, enhancing, and protecting that same patriarchy.

The question for the reader – Which form of female power do you prefer?

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