Greek Mythology

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The Rex Nemorensis – King of the Wood: The Ghastly Priest who Slew the Slayer

Image by Gerson Martinez from Pixabay

“From the still glassy lake that sleeps

Beneath Aricia’s trees –

Those trees in whose dim shadow

The ghastly priest doth reign,

The priest who slew the slayer,

And shall himself be slain” (1)

Thomas Babbington Macaulay

These words by Thomas Babbington Macaulay succinctly sum up the deadly duel of life and death to decide the Rex Nemorensis, the legendary High Priest of Diana Nemorensis of the Sacred Grove of Lake Nemi.   The  Rex Nemorensis was a shadowy figure in ancient Greek and Roman myth and legend. Most versions of his story agree that he earned his title and role by winning a fight to the death to become the “ghastly priest” of the above verse. Here we shall briefly discuss the mythical goddess of the Sacred Grove, Diana Nemorensis, followed by a look at her high priest and his deadly duel, followed by a look at the possible origins of the cult. Finally, there will be a brief discussion centered on “The Golden Bough,” a work by Sir James George Frazer inspired by the legendary Rex Nemorensis.

Diana’s Mirror

Diana Nemorensis was an important goddess in ancient times whose sanctuary and temple were situated on the northern shore of Lake Nemi.   The lake has been referred to as “speculum Dianae” which means “Diana’s Mirror”.   The important Roman festival of Nemoralia was held on the site. 

There were also other lesser deities associated with her and the Sacred Grove.  These were Egeria, who was the spirit of a nearby stream who also shared with Diana the protection of childbirth.   The other was Virbius, the Roman counterpart of the Greek Hippolytus. A third goddess possibly worshiped at the Sacred Grove was Vesta. She was believed to have eventually become conflated with the goddess Artemis.

The Rex Nemorensis

According  to legend,  the cult of Diana Nemorensis was recognized as one of the most ruthless, brutal and mysterious cults of ancient Rome.  The high priest who was said to have presided over her rituals was known as the ‘King of the Sacred Grove’ or the ‘King of the Wood,’ or more famously the ‘Rex Nemorensis.’   According to some traditions the cult was populated by fugitives or runaway slaves who had dedicated themselves to the worship of Diana. However, there is little evidence to support this, though the role of the Rex is linked to such outsiders.

Tradition says growing inside the grove was a huge oak tree.  It was strictly forbidden for anyone to break a branch off this special tree and it was guarded to prevent this.  The only exception to this rule were runaway slaves or fugitives.  If one succeeded they were rewarded with the right to challenge the incumbent high-priest to a duel to the death.  If the incumbent killed his challenger he remained in his post and lived.  If his challenger killed the incumbent he became “the ghastly priest who slew the slayer” –  the new Rex Nemorensis – High Priest of Diana, King of the Grove, King of the Wood and Guardian of the Sacred Grove, but it came with a high price.  

Having fought for and won the post he had to remain on his guard for the rest of his life.  Should a runaway slave, or fugitive, make it to the oak and break a branch off then that slave then earned the right to fight him for his titles and his life as he had done his predecessor.  The victor would become the Rex Nemorensis, until he too was defeated, with his conqueror taking his place. There could only ever be only one Rex Nemorensis.

This murderous cycle ensured that that incumbent high-priest was always kept at the pinnacle of his powers.  As the Rex Nemorensis he was the embodiment of fertility of nature and the woods.  As such he could not succumb to either illness or old age.  Death had to be violent because the spilling of blood on the ground was seen as necessary to bring fertility to the earth.  Despite the certainty of meeting a violent death it did at least offer sanctuary, albeit temporarily, to any such fugitive.

The Cult of Diana Nemorensis

The cult of Diana Nemorensis was very ancient and its beginnings are shrouded in myth and legend.  Many scholars think that it had its roots in ancient Greece.  There are two Greek traditions of how the cult originated. One traces its origins through the story of Orestes and Iphegenia, while the other is based on the tradition of Hippolytus.

Lake Nemi by John Robert Cozens – Public domain

Orestes and Iphegenia

The first account tells how Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, a king of Mycenae and his wife Clytemnestra, brought the cult of Diana Nemoresis to Italy.   On discovering his mother’s affair with Aeegistus, Orestes murders him to avenge his father who is on his way to fight the Trojans.   Orestes was told by the god Apollo to go to Tauris to purify himself as an act of atonement.  In Tauris, Artemis was a revered goddess and it was the custom for any foreigners landing upon the shores to be brought to her temple to be ritually sacrificed before her effigy by the high priestess.

On his arrival Orestes was taken before the High Priestess of Artemis to be prepared for sacrifice.   Fortunately for him she was his long lost sister who he believed had been sacrificed by their father.  She had been saved from this fate by the goddess Artemis and transported to Tauris where she was set in place as the high priestess of her cult.  Recognizing Orestes, Iphegenia could not kill her brother and by deceiving Thoas, the King of Tauris, they both escaped by ship taking with them the effigy of Artemis.  They sailed around the coastline finding their way to the south of Italy, finally making their way to Nemi and settling there.

With the theft of the effigy of Artemis and their escape from Tauris, Orestes and Iphegenia had placed themselves outside of society and the laws as they stood and were effectively fugitives.  Once they became established at Lake Nemi, the cult grew in popularity and strength.  Unlucky foreigners who landed on the shores were brought inland to Nemi for sacrifice. Eventually the tradition evolved so that runaway slaves and fugitives could claim the right to fight the incumbent high priest and claim his position.

The Story of Hippolytus

Death of Hippolytus – Lawrence Alma-Tadema – Public domain

The second version of the origin of the Rex Nemorensis tells how Hyppolytus, the son of Theseus, became the first Rex Nemorensis.   His step-mother was Phaedra who made sexual advances towards him which he rejected.  To gain revenge she accused him of raping her.  He was cursed and banished by his outraged father and was dragged to death by his chariot’s horses after they had been frightened by a sea monster sent by Poseidon.   Ascelapius, the god of medicine, with help from the goddess Artemis returned him to life as an old man named Virbio (Vir bis is Latin for man for the second time) to prevent him being recognized. He was taken to Lake Nemi where he was installed as high priest of the cult of Diana, becoming known as Virbius. Pausanius in his “Description of Greece,” says,

“The Aricians tell a tale … that when Hippolytus (the son of Theseus) was killed, owing to the curses of Theseus, Asclepius raised him from the dead. On coming to life again he refused to forgive his father; rejecting his prayers, he went to the Aricians in Italy. There he became king and devoted a precinct to Artemis, where down to my time the prize for the victor in single combat was the priesthood of the goddess. The contest was open to no freeman, but only to slaves who had run away from their masters.” (2)

The Golden Bough

The legend was the inspiration for The Golden Bough, a comparative work of religion and mythology by Sir James George Frazer first published in 1890. Although the book was influential in its time many of the ideas he proposed are not accepted by many modern scholars.  He appears to have expected this saying, 

“Books like mine, merely speculation, will be superseded sooner or later (the sooner the better for the sake of truth) by better induction based on fuller knowledge.” (3)

Maybe he saw his role as starting the conversation for others to continue.   Many of his contemporaries appeared rather disappointed with his success and popularity though his ideas were very controversial.  Fraser appeared to favor Virbius as the origin of the legend of the Rex Nemorensis,

 “In his character of the founder of the sacred grove and first king of Nemi, Virbius is clearly the mythical predecessor or archetype of the line of priests who served Diana under the title of Kings of the Wood, and who came, like him, one after the other, to a violent end. It is natural, therefore, to conjecture that they stood to the goddess of the grove in the same relation in which Virbius stood to her; in short, that the mortal King of the Wood had for his queen the woodland Diana herself.” (4)

 Whether the legendary Rex Nemorensis was a real historical figure is difficult to say and many think not. Nevertheless, he still cuts a dramatic figure lurking in the darkness of the sacred groves at the back of our minds.

© 29/04/2020 zteve t evans

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Copyright April 4th, 2020 zteve t evans

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Five Fabled Birds in Legend and Folklore

Viktor Vasnetsov, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

This article was first published on 23rd January 2020 titled Top Five Mythical Birds in Legend and Folklore by zteve t evans on #FolkloreThursday.com and has been edited and revised 2 March 2024.

Five Fabled Birds

This work briefly discusses five fabled birds: the sweet singing alkonost, the sirin, the gigantic roc, the phoenix, a symbol of hope and renewal, and the healing caladrius from the mythology, legend and folklore of different human societies in history.

The Alkonost

Alkonost by Ivan Bilibin -Public Domain

In Russian folklore, the alkonost is a bird-woman creature with a woman’s head and a bird’s body. Its melodies enchanted those who heard its song to let go of everything they had known, desiring nothing more as long as they lived, having been transported to a state of pure bliss. Before becoming linked to Christian myth, the alkonost was believed to dwell on the fabled island of Buyan of Slavic and Russian lore, which resembled a bird of paradise. Although not considered a wind spirit, she was thought to have some influence over the weather because, having laid her eggs on a gently sloping seashore, she moved them into the sea where they would hatch. The hatching of these eggs causes the sea to become rough, and a thunderstorm occurs. In Christian mythology, the alkonost is said to have lived in the Garden of Eden and sang beautiful songs to inspire and encourage the saints as God’s messenger.

The Alkonost had a companion bird called the Sirin. Both were considered birds of good fortune and regarded as protective spirits. The alkonost guarded good fortune in the day while the sirin protected it through the night. Russians carved their likeness on doorways and entrances in their home for good luck. Over time, this changed, and they appeared together as alter egos of each other. The Alkonost became seen as good, while the Sirin was given a darker persona similar to Sirens in Greek mythology. While the sirin was believed to bring death, the alkonost was thought to promise eternal life in paradise to the saints.

The Sirin

Sirin – Unknown Author – Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In Russian folklore and tradition, sirins had the top half of a woman, an owl-like body, often depicted wearing a crown or halo. They were often associated with the alkonost but are believed to have origins in Greek myths concerning sirens. They were believed to live either in Vyraj or along the Euphrates River’s banks. Vyraj, in Slavic folklore and mythology, was the place birds migrated to in winter, and souls went to after death and returned to earth as birds. It was also the place where spring on earth had its origins. They were also believed to sing to the saints, but it was dangerous for ordinary mortals to hear their songs. Those who listened were said to forget their earthly life and follow sirins wherever they went, often dying. People would make loud noises, such as ringing bells and firing cannons to scare them off.

From the 17th-18th century, a change of thinking occurred, and Sirens began to be seen as symbolising peace and harmony in the world. It was believed that only happy people could hear a sirin. Even fewer were said to be able to see them being as challenging to behold as happiness can be for humans. Hence, from then on, they came to symbolise eternal bliss and joy. It is thought their image was carried on artefacts that traders and merchants from Persia traded in Russia in the eighth and ninth centuries. Pottery from near Kyiv and Chersoneso depict images of sirins, and Gospel books from between the tenth and twelfth centuries have been found, some of which portray them as birds perching in the trees of paradise.

The Roc

Roc by Charles Maurice Detmold (1883-1908), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In the mythology of the East, the Middle East and Arabic countries, the roc is a legendary enormous bird of prey. It is featured in many myths and traditions. One account of an alleged sighting by the Moroccan explorer and scholar Ibn Battuta compares it to a mountain floating over the China Seas. Rocs also appear in some stories in One Thousand and One Nights, such as those of Sinbad the Sailor. The extraordinary scene of a roc carrying off an elephant in flight appears in two Sanskrit epics: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. A similar scene was depicted in a painting by Franz Rösel von Rosenhof of a roc carrying off a deer in one talon and an elephant in the other.
The 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo described the roc as a giant eagle. Its feathers were twelve paces long, and the bird was so powerful that it could seize an elephant in its claws. It could carry this high into the air and release it to fall back to earth, killing it and then feasting upon its flesh. According to Polo, the Great Khan sent his servants to Madagascar, and they returned with a huge feather. In Sinbad’s second voyage from The Arabian Nights, he encounters a roc on a tropical island, which is thought to be Madagascar.

The Phoenix


Bertuch-fabelwesen.JPG: Friedrich Johann Justin Bertuch (1747–1822) derivative work: Tsaag Valren, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The phoenix was a fabled bird like but not the same as the Firebird, which, according to some myths, lived in 500-year cycles. As the cycle concludes, it builds a nest, which it then sits on and spontaneously combusts, and the nest catches fire. From the ashes, a young Phoenix rises, replacing the older one. Hence, the phoenix is seen as a symbol of hope, regeneration, renewal, and the continuity of life.
The phoenix was believed to have originated in Arabia and later became the mythical bird of Egypt. It was later adopted by the Greeks and Romans, spreading through most of the Christian and Western world. Some scholars think that the phoenix and the feng-huang of China may be related. Nevertheless, the phoenix, the sacred bird of the Egyptian city of the sun, Heliopolis, is the most famous.

There are various interpretations of how it was represented. Sometimes, it was seen as similar to an eagle or alternatively, a heron. Its plumage was red and gold, and it was believed to have been born in the sun and lived for five hundred years cycles. When it died, it did so in Heliopolis, the temple of the sun, and reincarnated from its ashes. To some scholars, the phoenix represents the sun’s daily cycle of rising and setting. Others see it as representing the immortality of the human soul that undergoes renewal through the continuous cycle of death and rebirth. However, different cultures have different interpretations.

An account by the Roman senator, Monilius, passed on by Herodotus in the 5th century BC, says the home of the phoenix was in Arabia, and every 540 years, it died on a nest of sweet fragrance. After death, a worm was born from the marrow and bones of the carcass, transforming into a new phoenix. According to this account, the Christian church used myrrh and incense during burials because the rising smoke symbolised the spirit’s resurrection.

The Caladrius

Caladrius – Bestiary, Royal MS 12 C XIX; 1200-1210 – Public Domain

In Roman mythology, the caladrius was a bird with snow-white plumage living in the king’s house. According to tradition, it could absorb disease from a sick person. It would then fly away, dissipating the sickness and curing the patient and itself. Another tradition is that the patient’s fate could be known in the following way: If the bird looked into the patient’s face, they would live. But, if it looked away, they would die. It would fly up to the sun when it drew out the illness, where the disease would be incinerated. How it gave its prognosis represented how Christ turned his face away from unrepentant sinners. For those who repent, he turned his face towards them, forgiving them. Some scholars think the caladrius was based upon a real bird, possibly a dove or a water bird like a heron or a plover. In Christian symbolism, the caladrius represents Christ, who is pure white, stainless, and utterly unblemished by sin.

Hybrids and Birds

As can be seen of these five mythical creatures, the Alkonost and Sirin are hybrids of humans and birds, whereas the roc, phoenix and caladrius are extraordinary birds from myth and legend. Nevertheless, they all played essential roles in the ancient cultures that gave rise to them, and even today, they appear in literature and films.

© zteve t evans

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Greek Mythology: Cassandra – the Gift and the Curse of Apollo

Cassandra by Evelyn De Morgan [Public domain] (cropped)

Cassandra

In Greek mythology, Cassandra was a prophetess who could accurately foretell the future but was never believed.  This talent had been a gift from the god Apollo but when she rejected his advances he cursed her so that her predictions were never believed. She was also known as Kassandra and occasionally Alexandra.   Her parents were King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy and she had a twin brother named Helenus. Paris, whose abduction of Helen of Sparta helped spark the Trojan War was one of her brothers, as was the Trojan hero and war leader Hector. According to legend although very beautiful and intelligent she was regarded as being insane.

The Gift and the Curse

She served as a priestess of Apollo and took a vow of chastity swearing to remain a virgin for life.  In some versions of her story Apollo seeking to win her love gave her the power of prophecy on the condition that she bestowed her favors upon him.  However, after receiving the gift she went back on her word. With the gift of a divine power already given Apollo could not take it away so he added a curse to it. Although she would predict the future accurately her predictions would never be believed. In some later versions she receives her prophecies from a snake that whispered to her as she slept in the temple. 

The Gift of Prophecy

The gift of prophecy should have brought her great esteem and reverence among her people but the curse of Apollo turned it into a terrible blight on her life.  Although her predictions were always correct no one would believe her.  She was forced to watch her predictions unfold unable to do anything to alleviate their consequences until it was too late.  Her family and the Trojan people regarded her as a madwoman and a liar.  She was locked up on the orders of her father and her wardress was ordered to report all of her prophecies to him.

Cassandra by Evelyn De Morgan [Public domain]

Helenus

Cassandra had a twin brother named Helenus whom she taught how to foretell the future.  His prophecies were just as accurate as his sister’s but where her’s were disbelieved his were generally believed. She had predicted the death of her mother and had foreseen that the abduction of Helen by Paris would lead to the Trojan War warning him not to go to Sparta.  When Paris returned with Helen, Cassandra attacked her tearing away Helen’s golden veil and tearing at her hair because she knew her arrival in Troy heralded the ultimate destruction of the city.

Cassandra’s Prophecies

Cassandra had correctly prophesied the fall of Troy warning of the Trojan Horse concealing Greek soldiers. She also correctly foretold of the ten year journey and the return  of Odysseus. She predicted how her cousin Aeaneas would escape the destruction of Troy and is descendants  Romulus and Remus would found Rome. 

After the Greeks had captured the city she was taken by Agamemnon as one of the spoils of war.  Despite being consistently accurate with her predictions she continued to be disregarded and ignored to the cost of others and herself. She  forewarned him of a plot by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus, to both kill him and her but he ignored her and both were murdered.  

The Love of Coroebus

Coroebus, the son of King Mygdon of Phrygia fought on the side of the Trojans because he was in love with Cassandra. During the Sack of Troy he persuaded some of the Trojan defenders such as Aeneas to disguise themselves by wearing the enemy armour.  He tried to defend Cassandra from rape by Ajax the Lesser but was killed in her defence.

Othryoneus

Another suitor mentioned in the Illiad, by Homer was Othryoneus from Cabesos.  He took part in the war on the side of the Trojans solely with the purpose of marriage to Cassandra which her father, King Priam had agreed to.  However, he was killed by Idomeneus in the Battle of Ships who cruelly mocked him as he lay dying.

Cassandra in Greek Drama

There are several versions of the story of Cassandra in Greek drama.  Quintus Smyrnaeus in The Fall of Troy, tells how Cassandra desperately tried to warn the Trojans of the danger presented by the Trojan Horse during a victory feast over the Greeks.  The Trojans refused to believe her. In desperation she grabbed a burning torch and an axe and ran towards the wooden horse intent on destroying it and the Greeks hidden inside. The disbelieving Trojans stopped her sealing their own fate.  The Greeks inside the wooden horse could see and hear what was happening but would have been helpless should the horse have been torched. They were greatly relieved she failed but alarmed she had so quickly and easily realized their plan.

Carlo Raso from Naples, Italy [Public domain]

Nevertheless, when the time was right the Greeks put their plan into action and caught the Trojans by surprise.  As they took control of the city Cassandra sought sanctuary in the temple of Athena but was followed by Ajax the Lesser.  Coroebus tried to defend her but was killed and although she embraced the feet of the statue of Athena begging her protection Ajax dragged her from it and raped her.  According to some accounts despite the goddess Athena’s support for the Greeks she found this act by Ajax abhorrent and the cheeks of the statue flushed red in anger.  Tears fell from her eyes which she averted so that she would not see the violation and made a sound that caused the floor to tremble and shake. The goddess was enraged and demanded the Greeks punish Ajax.

Despite Odysseus calling for him to be stoned to death the Greeks would not carry it out because Ajax clung to the feet of Athena.  However Athena was furious at the Greeks for not bringing Ajax to justice and sought the help of Poseidon and Zeus. As the victorious Greeks sailed home from Troy Poseidon sent storms and strong winds which sank much of the fleet and Athena herself killed Ajax.

The Cursed Chest

According to some sources Cassandra had left a cursed chest in Troy intended for the first Greek who should open it.  The chest contained an image of Dionysus which had been created by Hephaestus and given to the Trojans by Zeus. The chest was given to Eurypylus, a Greek war lord as part of his reward for helping fight the Trojans.  When he opened it he saw the image and was instantly struck by madness

The Cassandra Syndrome

It was said that when she died her soul went into to the Elysian Fields the resting place of good and worthy souls.  She also became a figure of epic tradition and tragedy. The Cassandra Syndrome is a term named after her because it applies to predictions of doom by some oracle or prophet that are disbelieved and rejected when made but later prove to be true.  It is a form of psychological denial blocking out bad, unwelcome news or inevitable outcomes. This leaves the seer in the dilemma of knowing that something good or bad will happen but powerless to influence the outcome because no one will act upon their prediction to change or minimise the impact of the prediction.

© 15/01/2020 zteve t evans

References, Attributions and Further Reading

Copyright December 15th, 2020 zteve t evans

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The Griffin: The Legendary King of All Creatures

Knossos fresco in throne palace – CC BY-SA 3.0
This article was first published on #FolkloreThursday.com, 18/04/2019, under the title, Mythical Beasts: The Griffin, the Legendary King of all Creatures, written by zteve t evans. Edited and revised by zteve t evans 13 April 2024 images may differ from original.

King of all Creatures

The griffin, a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle, has been depicted in diverse styles and manners throughout various human cultures. Its unique and intriguing form has captivated the imagination of many and continues to be a source of inspiration for artists and storytellers alike. They were also known by several other names, including griffon, griffon, or gryphon. The creature’s eagle head represents its keen vision and intelligence, while the lion’s body signifies strength and courage. The eagle part of the creature was sometimes covered in feathers, while the lion part was fur.


In ancient times, lions were considered the “king of the beasts,” while eagles were the “king of the birds.” The griffin, a hybrid of these two, inherited both qualities, making it an extremely powerful entity and the “king of all creatures.” Although they were often depicted as having wings there are some wingless examples. For instance, a fine example was found in the palace of Knossos shown above. The palace of Knossos was the ancient ceremonial and political centre of the Bronze Age Minoan civilisation on Crete. It is described as the earliest in Europe, indicating the motif’s age and importance.

Griffins in Mythology

Tapestry – anonymous, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Griffins are depicted in the art and myths of many ancient cultures, including Iran, Anatolia, Egypt, Europe, and India. In early Greek mythos and art, they were portrayed as majestic beasts pulling the chariots of the gods Zeus and Apollo, through whom they became associated with the sun. Griffins were also portrayed as the servants of Nemesis, the Greek goddess of retribution and vengeance who punished mortals who defied the moral order or committed hubris against the gods. They symbolised the quick and inevitable justice that Nemesis would deliver, embodying her role as the keeper of the balance of fortune and the avenger of crime. Their fierce and vigilant nature made them suitable symbols for the goddess’s authority and her function within the pantheon to restore balance. They were her guardians of equilibrium and agents for executing retribution on offenders.


Alexander the Great

Alexander Flyin With Griffins – Jean Wauquelin, 1448-1449 – Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In legends and medieval literature, griffins have an intriguing connection with Alexander the Great. In the 12th-century romance “Roman d’Alexandre,” Alexander and his followers encounter griffins after leaving the country of Tradiaque during their legendary explorations and conquests. The griffins proved to be formidable foes, and Alexander’s army suffered significant losses in battle against them. However, his archers succeeded in shooting down the griffins from the sky. Another tale tells how Alexander the Great once utilized two large griffins to pull a cage in which he sat in between the two. To encourage their efforts, he held meat on skewers above their heads to entice them to fly.


Guardians of Treasure


Griffins were often viewed as protectors of valuable artefacts and treasures. They were connected to gold and safeguarded gold mines, frequently appearing as sentinels on tombs. According to Pliny, the Elder, griffins were believed to lay their eggs in nests set in burrows lined with golden nuggets. However, other accounts suggest that these mythical creatures built their nests like eagles and laid semi-precious stone eggs, like agate.


The Arimaspi

Aristeas of Proconnesus, a semi-legendary Greek poet, writes about the Arimaspi, a tribe of one-eyed people. They lived in the northern part of Scythia, near the Riphean Mountains, between the cave of Boreas, the Greek god of the north wind, and the Hyperborean region. The Arimaspi had a reputation for trying to steal gold from the griffins, which was often portrayed in works of art. The Arimaspi rode horses in their attacks, and from this evolved the hostility of the griffin for horses and were often depicted assailing and killing them.


According to mythology griffins and horses occasionally mated, giving birth to a hybrid creature known as the hippogriff or hippogryph. This creature had the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a horse, making it a symbol of love. Horses and griffins were believed to be natural enemies; hence, the hippogriff represented the unison of two opposing forces.


Dinosaurs

In regions north of the Black Sea, Scythians tattooed their bodies with griffin images that lacked wings; instead, they had a large frill on the back of their necks. The fossils of the beaked dinosaur Protoceratops found in the region may resemble them. Adrienne Mayor, a classical folklorist, and historian of science, suggests that griffins may have been inspired by fossilised remains such as these. Although not all scholars accept this theory, Mayor proposes that travellers or traders in regions of Scythia may have seen these remains and interpreted them as belonging to griffins.


Symbolism and Allegory

Many legendary, mythical, or fabulous creatures were hybrids or composites of two or more animals. In addition to their physical features, they carried the special characteristics of the subject animals, such as boldness, speed, and grace, combining to become one powerful fantastic beast with all the strengths and qualities of its compositive creatures. Furthermore, they became symbolic representations of virtues and attributes, expressing a greater meaning to those with specific knowledge.


Before the ability to read and write became widespread, symbols were an elegant form of language that conveyed specific information, and they are still used for that purpose today. Since ancient times, people have needed to identify themselves and pass on information for many reasons, such as warfare, business, and religious and social reasons. Images and symbols were chosen to represent individuals and organisations and their personal qualities and attributes, and the griffin was a popular choice for many. As such, the griffin had the traditional qualities such as strength, courage, and ferocity of a lion, together with the eagle’s speed, vision, and intelligence.


These qualities were attractive to leaders in war, religion, and politics. In the fine arts of Europe, the griffin appeared in works such as tapestries and illustrations and began to take on Christian symbolism. Griffins were believed to remain with one partner for life and would not take a new mate even if their partner died. Hence, the Church saw them as being symbolic of marital fidelity. Furthermore, as a fusion of a bird of the air and a creature of the earth, it was seen as a symbol for Jesus, who was both human and divine, and in Christian symbolism represents divine power and guardianship of the holy and is often depicted in churches calmly and patiently on guard.


Griffins in Heraldry

Jerzy Bąk, vectorization: Bastianow (Bastian), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In medieval heraldry, the griffin symbolised watchfulness and courage and was the guardian of treasure. As the king of the beasts, the lion is seen more frequently than any other animal in heraldry, while the eagle, the king of the birds, is the bird found the most often. There is an idea that there was a rivalry between these two creatures that paralleled the friction between dominant political powers in medieval Europe. The fusion of the two combines the power of the lion and the eagle, and the resulting hybrid stands for strength, military power, courage, intelligence, and leadership. In heraldry, the male griffin is presented without wings for unknown reasons. Instead, it has sharp ray-like spikes from various parts of its body representing sunrays, and sometimes, it is given two tusks or horns.


Varieties of Griffin

Traditionally, there were two main types of griffins: the Hyperborean, or northern griffin and the Indian griffin. The Hyperborean griffin was found in the forested hills and mountains that once existed in north-eastern parts of Europe and Russia. It was said to be between two to three feet in height or the size of a mountain lion. The Indian griffin had its range in the Middle East and North-Eastern India. It had more lion attributes than those of the eagle. It was held sacred to the sun and, although it could fly, was not adept at flying despite having wings. Nevertheless, they were formidable enough to defeat dragons and elephants.


Therapeutic Powers

The claws of a griffin were believed to have therapeutic or curative properties for health, and blindness could be cured by its feathers (1). In the courts of medieval Europe, goblets made from antelope horns were passed off as being made from the claws of griffins, and ostrich eggs were passed off as griffin eggs. Both were considered highly desirable objects (2). The claw was also believed to detect poison by changing colour and offered protection against illness.


Modern Times

Today, griffins appear on many coats of arms and shields in heraldry. Their image is used by many organisations, businesses, and associations in their iconography. Its image can still be seen carved or depicted on many different types of buildings, such as banks and museums, and remains a popular motif with many educational establishments.


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Greek mythology: Gaia’s revenge

Gaia the Earth Mother

Gaia – Public Domain

In Greek mythology Gaia  appeared out of Chaos and was the primal Mother Goddess who gave birth to the Earth and the universe.  According to some sources she was seen as the personification of the Earth and the mother of all.

Ouranos the god of the skies

Ouranos was the personification of the sky or the heavens in Greek mythology and is also known by his Latinized name of Uranus. He was also known as Father Sky.  Sources differ but  Hesiod in his work Theogony says that Gaia was his mother while other sources say his father was Aether.

Gaia gave birth to Ouranos who became the sky crowned with stars and of equal splendor to her and made so as to fully cover her. She then created the mountains and the sea. After the universe had been formed the next task was to populate it.

The birth of the Titans

Ouranos was not only her son but her husband too. Gaia united with Ouranos to give birth to the twelve Titans, six male and six female and the first race upon the earth. Their sons names were Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus and Cronus, and their daughters names were Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys.

The birth of the Cyclops

Ouranos and Gaia then produced the Cyclops, who were named Brontes, Steropes and Arges. These were giants with one eye in their foreheads and who possessed incredible strength.

The birth of Briareus, Cottus and Gyes

Their next offspring were three monsters who each had one hundred powerful arms and fifty heads. They were known as the Hecatonchires, or the Centimanes, and their names were Briareus, Cottus and Gyes.

Ouranos regarded his children with horror and revulsion and was also thought to be fearful of their strength, and possibly usurping him. As soon as they were born he imprisoned them in  the earth, which was inside Gaia who was the Earth goddess.

Gaia’s revenge

Victory, Janus, Chronos, and Gaea – by Giulio Romano – Public Domain

Gaia was distraught at this, and feeling great sorrow for her children and great pain for herself planned vengeance against Ouranos. From her bosom she manifested a sharp sickle and asked her children to join in with a plan she had made to set them free and wreak vengeance. The plan was to castrate Ouranos when he visited her at night. Only Cronus agreed to help her and she gave him the sickle.

When evening fell Ouranos returned to rejoin Gaia. While Ouranos was asleep, Cronus and Gaia mutilated him, cutting off his genitals and throwing them in the sea. From the blood that seeped from the terrible wound onto the earth sprang the Furies, the Giants and the ash-tree nymphs. From what was thrown into the sea the goddess of love and desire, known as Aphrodite, was born.

Cronus becomes king of the gods

With Ouranos now impotent and the sky separated from the earth, Cronus liberated his fellow Titans, but not the Cyclops and Hecatonchires, and became king of the gods. Later he too was to be deposed by his son Zeus, who became the chief god of the Greek Pantheon.

References and attributions

Copyright 25/03/2015 zteve t evans

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Greek mythology: Doris the Oceanid

According to wikipedia.org, Hesiod along with Homer was a Greek oral poet whose work has survived the centuries. His writings on farming, astronomy, time-keeping and mythology serve as a major source of information for scholars. One of his works, Theogony, explains the origins of the cosmos and the genealogy of the gods.

Doris - Public Domain

Doris – Public Domain

There is very little known about Doris and she is barely mentioned in any myths or legends. According to Hesiod, Doris was the daughter of the Titan, Oceanus and Tethys, the Titaness.

Doris was an Oceanid, or sea nymph, and was the sister of many other such nymphs such as Clymene, Calypso, Styx, Metis, and Tyche. The Oceanids were named from their father, Oceanus. Doris was also the aunt of Atlas whose task was to carry the world on his shoulder. Her sister Clymene was the mother of Atlas.

She is briefly mentioned in the myth of Phaethon for taking refuge in the darkest places of the earth with her husband to escape the excessive heat of Phaethon’s fiery ride in the chariot of Helios. A ride which nearly destroyed the world.

In Greek mythology she was the wife of the sea god Nereus and between them they were parents of the Nereids, These were fifty in number and were very beautiful and include Psamathe, Galatea, Amphitrite, and Thetis.

The most famous of these was Thetis, who was the mother of Achilles and Galatae who Polphemus the Cyclops fell in love with. Galatae rejected Polphemus and instead fell in love with a shepherd, Acis. Polphemus killed Acis with a boulder in revenge.

Arethusa, a nymph, was also a daughter of Doris changed by Artemis into a fountain so she could escape the pursuit of Alpheus.

The Nereids also played a part in the myth of Jason and the Argonauts by helping to guide the ship in the encounter with Charbdys and Scylla, and the Wandering Rocks.

Nereus was sea god of some significance, being the son of the god Pontus, who was considered the personification of the sea, by Hesiod. He considered to be an old man with the gift of prophecy. He was known for his wisdom and devotion to truth and justice. He was also called the Old Man of the Sea.

She was not a resident goddess on Mount Olympus and Doris does not play a significant part in Greek mythology other than as wife to Nereus and mother to the Nereids. Her name means bounty of the sea and was the god of rich fishing grounds at the mouths of rivers, where fresh water mingles with salt water.

Copyright July 30, 2009 zteve t evans

References and Attribitions

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Greek mythology: The Moirai

In Classical Greek mythology the description of the Moirai differs from age to age and also with location. They vary in number from one to four. This discussion is based on the account of the Greek poet, Hesiod who was believed to have lived in the eighth century BC.

It was the task of the Moirai to shadow human beings from birth to death throughout their mortal, physical life on earth. They take the form of three old women spinning out the threads of each person’s life on earth.

Fates_tapestry

Their names were: Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos and when death approaches, it is their task is to ensure that and the natural order is preserved and a person’s fate is meted out accordingly. They are believed to sing in harmony with the Sirens when death approaches and were also known as the Fates.

Clotho represents the thread of life that begins at the birth of a mortal and is the spinner of that thread and sings of those things that are.

Lachesis was the dealer of lots. Through her people were given their chances in life and it was up to them to make the best of it. It was she who measured the thread of life. She sings of the things that were.

Atropos is the smallest and most fearsome of the three and represented the irrevocable fate that awaits a person and in the end there can be no appeal. It was she who cut the thread of life at a mortal’s death. She sings of the things that will be.

The lives of all living things were presided over by the Moirai. They apportioned everyone their share of good and evil at birth. The manner in which they conducted their lives could change the allotted portions of good and evil.

Not even the gods could change fate and if Zeus alone had such power he was reluctant to use it to disturb the natural order of the world.

The only time the Moirai were foiled in their task was by the physician, Asclepius, the son of Apollo, who revived a man, bringing him back from death. The Moirai then persuaded Zeus to kill Asclepius with a thunderbolt.

Just as the Moirai were the delegates of Zeus to ensure the natural order was carried out the Keres task was to carry out the decrees of the Moirai, and were sometimes confused with them. It was the Keres who appeared at the final hour of a mortal’s life to ensure death.

It was believed that during battles they could be seen hovering over the doomed mortal ready to ensure his fate was complete. They killed the wounded and drank their blood and were also known as the dogs of Hades.

In Greek, the word moira means a part, or portion, and it was the Moirai who decided a mortal’s portion in life at their birth and followed their life to ensure destiny was fulfilled. The Moirai also had the gift of prophecy and were honoured among the gods sitting in their assemblies and giving advice on the destinies of mortals.

Their myth is perhaps best seen as a way to describe the fate of mortal human beings and to try and make some sense out of the human cycle of life and the ultimate destiny of death.

Copyright July 7, 2009 zteve t evans

References and Attributions

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Greek Mythology: The Story of The Centaurs

In Greek mythology the Centaurs are also known as the Kentauroi. They are beings that are semi horse and semi human. Their torso and head are in human form, and their body is the form of a horse. Being half human and half animal they were in continuous conflict with themselves and the world around them.

Centaur – by Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Origin of the Centaurs

The Centaurs dwelt on Mount Pelion in Thessaly, northern Greece. They are thought to be the result of Ixion, the king of Lapithe, having a mistaken liaison with a cloud. The cloud had been created by Zeus in the likeness of Hera, to foil a planned rendezvous by her and Ixion.

This resulted in the birth of Centaurus, who was to become the father of the Centaurs by mating with Magnesian mares. Sometimes the Centaurs are known as Ixionida from this liaison.

Drunkenness and Debauchery

As worshipers of Dionysus, the god of wine, the Centaurs had a reputation of drunkenness and debauchery and lust for women. There were a few such as Chiron, who was an exception to this behavior and was held in high esteem as one who is wise.

War With King Peirithous

The Centaurs went to war when a part of Thessaly was inherited by King of the Lapiths from his father Ixion. Because they were grandsons of Ixion the Centaurs believed they also had a claim to the land and fighting broke out before a peace was put in place.

King Peirithous was getting married and, as a token, invited the Centaurs to the marriage feast. They then lived up to their reputation by getting drunk, violating the female guests and attempting to kidnap the bride.

This resulted in a battle where they were all driven from Thessaly, with the exception of Chiron. He was the only immortal of the Centaurs and was regarded as someone with great graciousness and wisdom. He was a teacher to Jason and Achilles, as well as Asclepius, and Actaeon.

Chiron is Placed Among the Stars

Having been accidentally wounded by Heracles, he lived in constant great pain and, as an immortal, could not die a natural death. The only release from an eternity of pain was to trade his immortality for the mortality of Prometheus. For this Zeus placed him in the stars becoming part of the constellation of Sagittarius.

Redemption From Savagery

Some scholars think that the Centaur represents a conflict in human nature. Being half human and half animal, the Centaurs could not fully bring into being their humanity resulting in their nature becoming increasingly bestial and wild and, in effect, caught between two worlds. The fact that even a few such as Chiron manage to overcome this condition suggests that in the end they were capable of redemption from savagery.

© 12/18/2013 zteve t evans

References and Attributions

Copyright 12/18/2013 zteve t evans

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Greek Mythology: The Fall of Phaethon

The Fall of Phaethon – Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1617). Public Domain

Greek mythology contains many stories that have relevance and significance today.  The story of Phaethon’s downfall is one such myth.  Phaeton was a young man who felt embarrassed and humiliated because he was illegitimate and did not know who his father was. He knew his mother who loved him and he had sisters who loved him but this was not enough.

Ever since he was a boy his play mates had taunted him because he had no father and was illegitimate.  This upset him greatly so one day he went to his mother, Clymene and begged her to tell him who is father was.   His mother told him his father was the sun god, Helios (Apollo).

Phaethon Begs His Father A Favor

Excited by the thought that the great god of the Sun was his father Phaethon went to see Helios and told him what his mother had said. Helios had not known he had a son by Clymene and was pleased and proud to discover that he was Phaethon’s father.   Phaethon was ecstatic that his father was the powerful and important god of the sun and wanted everyone to know the truth.  He begged his father a favor which Helios rashly granted without knowing what it was.

So that everyone would see that in truth he did have a father of such high significance he wanted to ride his father’s chariot across the skies. He thought that in doing so it would prove his own importance and significance.

Helios is Fearful

When Phaethon told Helios what he wanted granted he was full of fear and tried to dissuade his son from this.  He pointed out that even the mighty Zeus, who was the King of the Gods, would not attempt such a feat as the horses breathed fire and were wild and the chariot glowed red hot.  It needed someone of great strength, skill and experience to control the chariot on its journey across the sky.

Phaethon was not put off and insisted his father fulfill his wish as he had promised.  Reluctantly Helios gave in and Phaethon took the reins of the chariot.

Phaethon Loses Control of the Chariot

The fiery, wild horses knowing there was a lesser charioteer than their master, Helios, charged across the sky.  The chariot glowed ret hot and spewed flames and the young and inexperienced boy could not master the powerful horses.

Out of control the horses rampaged across the sky bringing death and destruction to the earth and its inhabitants below.   They flew so high that the earth was bereft of light and grew cold, before turning and diving so close to the earth that cities were scorched and forests set ablaze and turned to ash.

Zeus Acts

At last seeing the danger Zeus decided to intervene.  He threw a thunderbolt at Phaethon killing him.  His body plummeted from the sky falling into the River Erianus.   There his sisters found his body and were transformed by grief and mourning into trees and their tears became amber.

Helios Blames Zeus

Full of grief and guilt for his weakness in giving into his son, Helios blamed Zeus and refused to drive his chariot across the sky for many days. But Zeus insisted that there had been no other way to save the world.  The other gods begged Helios to take to his chariot again as the earth needed light and warmth.  Eventually Helios agreed and light and warmth in proper measure were restored to the earth.

Boy Racers

Today one only has to think of those “boy racers” who drive their father’s powerful cars too fast in search of respect and admiration from their friends only to lose control and meet disaster.  No doubt their father’s, like Helios the Sun god, would rue their own weakness for the rest of their days.

References and Attributions
Phaethon, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Theoi Project
Image - File:Phaeton-engraving.jpg From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository -An engraving  The fall of Phaëton by Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1617) - Public Domain
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Greek Myths: Pygmalion Falls In Love

In Greek mythology Pygmalion was a wonderfully gifted sculptor who created a marvelous statue of a beautiful woman. The statue was so flawless and lifelike he becomes obsessed with his own sculpture falling in love with it.

L’Origine de la sculpture ou Pygmalion priant Vénus d’animer sa statue – Painting by Jean-Baptiste Regnault} – Public Domain

Metamorphoses, by Ovid

The myth was passed to us by Ovid, a Roman poet who included it in a long poem called Metamorphoses. This poem had 12,000 lines of hexameter verse in fifteen books. Its narrative tells of the creation of the world up to the rule of the Roman Emperor Augustus, making it of great value to the modern scholar.

Within this long poem are many mythical and legendary stories. A key theme though out is transformation which can be great or small but significant in effect. This transformation often takes place through the intervention of the gods.

It may be a reward for obedience and devotion to the gods or punishment for being unfaithful and disobedient. Passion is a theme that is central through out the work.

Pygmalion

Pygmalion lived on the island of Cyprus where the goddess Aphrodite was widely revered and he was devoted to her.  Not everyone shared this devotion. The daughters of Propoetus of Amathus, who were known as known as the Propoetides, did not worship Aphrodite or pay her due respect.

As a punishment Aphrodite filled them with an immoral passion causing them to act as wanton prostitutes. Pygmalion abhorred their behaviour and grew to loathe them so much that he swore never to marry.  For many years he separated himself from such behaviour concentrating on his work.

Pygmalion Creates a Beautiful Statue

Pygmalion and Galatea – Public Domain

During this time of isolation he created a statue of a woman of the most perfect beauty that was amazingly lifelike.   He saw in the statue everything he believed a woman should be and all that the Propoetides were not.  Indeed the statue was so flawless and its beauty surpassed that of any living woman.  As he gazed upon it in admiration of his own skill and its beauty he fell in love with it.

Pygmalion became obsessed, touching and caressing it, as if it was a real woman.  He put fine necklaces around its neck and dressed it in beautiful clothes and came to believe that it was indeed a real woman.  He would give it beautiful presents such as he thought a real woman would take pleasure in.   He would recline it on a couch and with it dressed in fine clothes and jewelery he began to believe it was his wife.

Aphrodite Grants his Heart’s Desire

In Pygmalion’s time the festival of Aphrodite was an important event on Cyprus.  Being dedicated to her he went to her alter and performed sacred rites to honour her.   In his prayers he asked Aphrodite for a wife similar to his statue, but what he really desired more than anything was for the statue to be his wife, but did not say so as he thought it inappropriate.

Aphrodite was pleased with his dedication to her and reading his mind new his heart’s desire.   She caused the alter flames to flare three times as a sign of her approval.

On his return home Pygmalion immediately went to the statue where he had left it reclining on the couch, dressed in finery.  He began to kiss and caress it…  To his utter amazement the statue’s face felt soft and warm.  To his surprise and delight the statue began responding to his kisses and caresses returning them.

Pygmalion gets Married

Overjoyed, he realised Aphrodite had caused the statue to come to life. Pygmalion thanked Aphrodite with all his heart and she looked down and blessed the couple.   From their marriage came a son named Paphos who gave his name to the city on Cyprus where the cult of Aphrodite was centred.  In later versions of the myth his wife is named as Galatea.

Divine Intervention

The punishment of the Propoetides by Aphrodite who filled them with an immoral passion, Pygmalion’s devotion and dedication to the goddess and passion for his statue, Aphrodite’s transformation of the statue into a real woman are examples of how the gods may intervene in the lives of humans.

References and Attributions